Using species traits to understand the mechanisms driving pollination and pest control ecosystem services Arran Greenop (B.Sc., MRes) March 2020 Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Contents Summary ...................................................................................................................... iv List of figures ................................................................................................................. v List of tables .................................................................................................................. vi Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... viii Declarations ................................................................................................................. viii Statement of authorship ................................................................................................ ix 1. Chapter 1. Thesis introduction ....................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Thesis outline ............................................................................................................ 8 2. Chapter 2. Functional diversity positively affects prey suppression by invertebrate predators: a meta-analysis .................................................................................................. 10 2.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................... 10 2.2. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 11 2.3. Materials and Methods ............................................................................................ 14 2.3.1. Study selection and data .................................................................................. 14 2.3.2. Statistical analysis ........................................................................................... 22 2.4. Results .................................................................................................................... 24 2.4.1. General effects across studies ......................................................................... 24 2.4.2. Predator and prey variables ............................................................................. 24 2.4.3. Experimental factors ........................................................................................ 28 2.5. Discussion ............................................................................................................... 30 2.6. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 36 2.7. Supplementary Information ...................................................................................... 38 2.7.1. S1: Web of Science search terms .................................................................... 38 2.7.2. S2: Studies included in the meta-analysis. ....................................................... 39 2.7.3. S3: Table of species functional traits and their definitions. ............................... 43 2.7.4. S4: Collinearity and model result tables ........................................................... 68 2.7.5. S5: Publication bias figures .............................................................................. 73 2.7.6. S6: 2AICc subsets ............................................................................................ 77 2.7.7. S7: Individual trait analysis .............................................................................. 78 2.7.8. S8: Substitutive design analysis ....................................................................... 80 3. Chapter 3: Two common invertebrate predators show varying responses to different types of sentinel prey in a mesocosm study ........................................................................ 81 3.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................... 81 i 3.2. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 82 3.3. Methods .................................................................................................................. 84 3.3.1. Experimental system ....................................................................................... 84 3.3.2. Statistical analysis ........................................................................................... 87 3.4. Results .................................................................................................................... 88 3.5. Discussion ............................................................................................................... 89 3.5.1. Effect of predator density on attack rates ......................................................... 89 3.5.2. Predation responses to the different sentinel prey methods ............................. 91 3.6. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 93 3.7. Supplementary Information ...................................................................................... 95 3.7.1. S1: Artificial prey .............................................................................................. 95 4. Chapter 4. Equivocal evidence for colony level stress effects on bumble bee pollination services............................................................................................................................... 96 4.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................... 96 4.2. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 97 4.3. Materials and methods ............................................................................................ 99 4.3.1. Experimental set up ......................................................................................... 99 4.3.2. Statistical analysis ......................................................................................... 104 4.4. Results .................................................................................................................. 108 4.4.1. Behaviour responses to heat stress and pesticide ......................................... 108 4.4.2. Yield parameters ............................................................................................ 110 4.5. Discussion ............................................................................................................. 113 4.5.1. Heat stress .................................................................................................... 113 4.5.2. Clothianidin exposure .................................................................................... 116 4.6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 118 4.7. Supplementary Information .................................................................................... 119 4.7.1. S1: Experimental set up ................................................................................. 119 4.7.2. S2: Raw means table ..................................................................................... 120 5. Chapter 5: Arthropod community structure predicts pest control resilience to insecticide exposure ........................................................................................................................... 121 5.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................. 121 5.2. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 122 5.3. Materials and methods .......................................................................................... 125 5.3.1. Resistance and recovery of individual predators ............................................ 125 Statistics (part 1): .......................................................................................................... 128 5.3.2. Community resistance and recovery .............................................................. 129 Statistics (part 2): .......................................................................................................... 133 5.4. Results .................................................................................................................. 134 ii 5.4.1. Resistance and recovery of individual predators ............................................ 134 5.4.2. Community resistance and recovery .............................................................. 137 5.5. Discussion ............................................................................................................. 143 5.5.1. Individual predator susceptibility .................................................................... 143 5.5.2. Community resistance and recovery .............................................................. 145 5.6. Conclusion ...........................................................................................................