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British Mapping of Africa: Publishing Histories of Imperial Cartography, c. 1880 – c. 1915 Amy Prior Submitted for PhD The University of Edinburgh December 2012 Abstract This thesis investigates how the mapping of Africa by British institutions between c.1880 and c.1915 was more complex and variable than is traditionally recognised. The study takes three ‘cuts’ into this topic, presented as journal papers, which examine: the Bartholomew map-publishing firm, the cartographic coverage of the Second Boer War, and the maps associated with Sir Harry H. Johnston. Each case-study focuses on what was produced – both quantitative output and the content of representations – and why. Informed by theories from the history of cartography, book history and the history of science, particular attention is paid to the concerns and processes embodied in the maps and map-making that are irreducible to simply ‘imperial’ discourse; these variously include editorial processes and questions of authorship, concerns for credibility and intended audiences, and the circulation and ‘life-cycles’ of maps. These findings are also explored in relation to the institutional geography of cartography in Britain: the studies illustrate the institutional contingency of such factors and how this gave rise to highly variable representations of Africa. These three empirical papers represent the first sustained studies of each of the topics. By connecting their findings, the thesis also offers broader reconceptualisations of the British mapping of Africa between c.1880 and c.1915: with respect to cartographic representations, maps as objects, and the institutions producing them. Maps did not simply reflect ‘imperial’ discourse; they were highly variable manifestations of multifaceted and institutionally contingent factors and were mobile and mutable objects that were re-used and re-produced in different ways across different settings. Map- making institutions were discrete but interconnected sites that not only produced different representations, but played different roles in the mapping of Africa. By illuminating the institutional provenance, ‘life-cycles’ and content of the maps studied, this thesis extends current knowledge of British mapping of Africa during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and raises questions for further research incorporating its lessons, sources and theories. ii Acknowledgements First and foremost I offer my deepest gratitude to my supervisors Charles Withers, Christopher Fleet, and David Finkelstein. They have been unfailingly generous with their time, advice, expertise and patience, for which I am enormously thankful. I am indebted, also, to archivists at a number of institutions for their expert guidance: the whole team at the National Library of Scotland Map Library, particularly Karla Baker; Francis Herbert at the RGS–IBG archives; and Rose Mitchell at the National Archives. I am also grateful to the staff who responded to my requests for information and items at these institutions and at other repositories: the British Library, Cambridge University, Kew Library, and the National Army Museum. It is a pleasure to thank the many people who have contributed to my study in various ways, including: Julie McDougall and Carolyn Anderson for their archival assistance and friendship; those conference attendees and reviewers who offered critique on the drafts of the papers used in this thesis; my grandparents and my brother for providing last-minute accommodation and help in London; numerous friends – especially Tom, Fiona, Rosie, Rona and Skye – who have given me priceless perspective over the last three years; and my boyfriend, Steve, whose confidence in me and encouragement have been invaluable. This thesis was funded by a Collaborative Doctoral Award from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and the National Library of Scotland (NLS). I gratefully acknowledge these institutions’ financial support. Periods of archival research in London were made possible, also, by a J.B. Harley Fellowship in the History of Cartography; and my attendance at international conferences was assisted by travel grants from the AHRC and the American Friends of the J.B. Harley Research Fellowships. I am indebted to the Trustees of each of these organisations for the treasured opportunities they have granted me over the past three years. To my parents: thank you for your unflinching support, in all its forms. I could not have done this without you. iii Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by me, that the work is my own, and that it has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Amy Prior December 2012. iv Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Declaration iv List of Maps and Figures ix List of Tables xiii Abbreviations xiv _____________ Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Research Approach 3 Structure of the Thesis 5 _____________ Chapter 2 Critical Histories of Imperial Cartography: a Historiographical and Theoretical Review 9 Introduction 9 A Summary Historiography of the History of Cartography 11 Critical Histories of ‘Imperial Cartography’ 19 Critical Histories of the Cartography of Africa, c.1880 – c.1915 29 Conclusions and Implications for Research 35 _____________ Chapter 3 Britain and Africa, c.1880–c.1915: a Contextual Overview 37 Introduction 37 The ‘Scramble for Africa’ and the ‘big theory’ of Imperialism 38 v Cartographic Context: British Mapping of Africa, c.1880 – c.1915 48 ‘Official’ mapping 50 ‘Unofficial’ mapping 56 ‘Popular’ mapping 60 Conclusions and Implications for Research 62 _____________ Chapter 4 ‘Cutting’ into the British Cartography of Africa: Case-studies, Sources and Questions of Method 65 Introduction 65 The Three ‘Cuts’: an Institution, an Individual and an Event 65 Theoretical Frameworks: Map History, Book History and the History of Science 68 Archival Interrogation: Repositories, Sources and Methods 74 Conclusions 83 _____________ Chapter 5 The Bartholomews’ Mapping of Africa, 1880–1915 84 Introduction 84 Journal Paper: The Bartholomews’ Mapping of Africa, 1880–1915 84 Abstract 84 Introduction 85 Outputs and outlets: Bartholomews’ production of Africa maps, 1880–1915 87 Epistolary and epimap sources: problematizing production and authorship 110 Deconstructing the Bartholomews’ ‘political’ maps 118 Conclusions 122 Chapter Conclusions 127 ____________ vi Chapter 6 Mapping the Second Boer War from Britain, 1899–1902 129 Introduction 129 Journal Paper: Mapping the Second Boer War from Britain, 1899–1902 130 Abstract 130 Introduction 130 Institutions’ outputs: August 1899 – December 1902 135 Representing battles and incidents 140 Charting terrain 150 Mapping political possessions 157 Conclusions 161 Chapter Conclusions 164 _____________ Chapter 7 ‘Life-histories’ of Africa maps: the case of Sir Harry H. Johnston, 1883 – 1915 167 Introduction 167 Journal Paper: Map History, Book History and Questions of Cartographic Authorship: the Africa Maps of Sir Harry H. Johnston, 1883–1915 168 Abstract 168 Introduction 169 Locating, problematizing and pluralising authorship 171 Johnston: the man and the maps 174 The Government deals with Johnston: autocratic re-authorship 179 The RGS: reciprocity in redaction 186 The Bartholomew Firm: authorial liberty 194 Conclusions 200 Chapter Conclusions 203 _____________ vii Chapter 8 Synthesis and Conclusions 206 Introduction 206 The Content of Maps: Production and Representation 207 The Nature of Maps: Mobility, Mutability and Life-cycles 212 Map-making Institutions: their Workings and Roles 215 Limitations and Reflections 217 Implications for Future Research 220 _____________ References 225 Appendix 1: Bartholomew Firm (Chapter 5) Materials 249 Appendix 2: Second Boer War (Chapter 6) Materials 252 Appendix 3: Harry H. Johnston (Chapter 7) Materials 269 viii List of Maps and Figures 2.1 Imperial Federation: Map Showing the Extent of the 28 British Empire in 1886 5.1 The Bartholomew firm’s output of African cartography, 89 1880–1915 5.2 The Bartholomew firm’s cartographic output across 16 92 ‘snapshot’ years 1880–1881, 1885–1886, 1889–1890, 1894–5, 1899–1900, 1904–1905, 1909–1910, 1914–1915 5.3 Annual percentage of the Bartholomew firm’s maps sent 95 to Publishers, Booksellers and Publishers/ Booksellers, 1880–1915 5.4 ‘War’ and ‘Events ‘maps produced per annum by the 102 Bartholomew firm, 1880–1915 5.5 Missionary maps (Figure 5.5a) and Physical/ Topographic 104 maps (Figure 5b) produced per annum by the Bartholomew firm, 1880–1915 5.6 Explorer/ Route maps (Figure 5.6a) and Political maps 105 (Figure 5.6b) produced per annum by the Bartholomew firm, 1880–1915 ix 5.7