Chapter Six: Pax Romana CHAPTER OUTLINE The New Imperium Augustus, the First Citizen Emperors Good and Bad: Augustus to the Severi Inside the Imperial Monarchy Upper Classes and Other Classes Senators and Equestrians Wives, Mothers, and Children Freedmen, Slaves, and the Poor The Culture of Imperial Rome Buildings and Waterways A City, an Empire, a World Roman Literature in Florescence and Decay Holding the Frontier Defending the Boundaries Redefining the Army Managing the Crisis Constantine s City and The City of God CHAPTER SUMMARY The leadership of Octavian, called Augustus, led to a period of unprecedented prosperity and peace for the Roman people. Octavian established his authority gradually, eventually receiving an oath of allegiance from all Italians. While claiming toreestablish the republic, in reality Augustus was creating a new government for Rome, that of a monarchy. Augustus insisted that the Senate convene, that they vote on bills and help to pass laws, and that he was only the first citizen, not an autocratic ruler. A casual observer in the first years of Augustus reign might have agreed, but it did not take long for it to be apparent that in fact, Augustus was an absolute monarch in all but name. His reign was a successful one in most areas, but both of his designated successors predeceased him, and he was forced to name his stepson, Tiberius, as his heir. Tragically, Augustus successors proved far less capable than he had been. Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero all proved to be weak and, in some cases, dangerous leaders. Tiberius was not popular and was one of the few emperors not deified after his death. Caligula was insane and was murdered by the Praetorian Guard which was assigned to protect him. Claudius, although a bookish scholar, was at least somewhat adept, but he too was murdered, this time by his wife, who wanted to ensure her son s succession to the throne. Nero responded to his mother s gesture by having her murdered, and then spent most of his reign demonstrating that insanity appeared to be a continual issue in the lives of the emperors of Rome. The years 68-69 C.E. saw the most chaotic experiences yet, as four different men claimed the throne of Rome, and stability was only returned when the last of them, Vespasian, came to the throne. Vespasian s rule marked a period of great stability in government, and he chose his own sons to rule after him, with limited results. Eventually, with the selection of Nerva as emperor, the true period of Roman peace could begin. The succession of 5 emperors, often called the Five Good Emperors, marked the highlight of the pax romana. It was not until Marcus Aurelius chose his own son, rather than a senator, to succeed him that the peace began to crumble. Even with the difficulties in finding good people to rule, Rome continued on, in large part due to its strong bureaucracy. Law and bureaucracy were major concerns of the Roman people, and that was reflected by the number of people involved in both professions. Law became the property of the emperor, rather than the Senate, and the emperor and his council made the laws that governed the empire. Those who served the empire saw their positions improve as the bureaucracy became increasingly important. Laws applied to all aspects of life, and even areas that had been previously untouched or ignored by law came into play. Adultery 1 became a crime punishable by banishment, but even the zealous actions of Augustus could not save the empire from a dilution ofthe senatorial ranks. This absence of heirs meant that those who were born were increasingly important, and that their mothers often played an even more important role. Women in upper-class imperial society had far greater freedoms than their predecessors, in part because Roman marriage came to be seen more in the modern sense of a loving partnership. Divorce was easily obtainable for both men and women, and consorts of emperors often had significant power in their own right. Children also were granted more rights, as infanticide became illegal, and children were less likely to be abandoned, although they remained tied to their fathers economically. The other group of people who were previously without rights, slaves, also saw their lives improve under the monarchy. While the conditions under which slaves labored were still not good, laws passed by a succession of emperors improved the overall lives of slaves within the Roman empire. The plebs, or mob, had few rights but few responsibilities, as most of them received grain and entertainment from the state and did not work. Arts and culture flourished during the imperial age. Writers, scientists, physicians and others explored a variety of mediums to bring information to the Roman world and beyond. The one form that suffered a decline was oratory, which had usually been practiced in the Senate: with the decline of the significance of that body, there was less need for persuasive argument. Tacitus, the historian, argued that the loss of political freedom was directly related to the decline in oratory. New cultural forms also nterede the empire due to the influx of barbarians and the fluidity of the Roman borders in the later years of the empire. In addition to the cultural influence, negatives came into the empire as well. The army drained most of the resources that the empire managed to build up, and the loyalty of the troops tended to be more towards the individual leaders than to the empire as a whole. By the reign of Hadrian, the army was seen as a permanent force rather than the mobile fighting unit it had been previously, and more and more barbarians were being incorporated into the army. As the resources of the empire began to dwindle, the army became a revenue-gathering organization, responsible for squeezing as much money as possible out of the poor. The ensuing chaos in the empire led to thedivision of the empire by Diocletian, who believed that it would be more effective to have two rulers. The change did not help, and chaos reigned in both east and west. The reign of Constantine marked the last great imperial push in the west. Constantine came to power as part of Diocletian s tetrarchy, but soon abandoned that for sole authority within the empire. He did follow many of Diocletian s suggestions, including the move of the capital to the east. He legitimized Christianity by becoming a Christian himself: within 50 years of his death Christianity was the official religion of the empire. The new Rome, as envisioned by Constantine, with its capital at Constantinople, would remain intact for over 1,000 years: the old Rome would fall to barbarians in 476. KEY POINTS The New Imperium: Rome enjoys two centuries of peace under emperors from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius, who head an ever-expanding bureaucracy and army. Upper Classes and Other Classes: Republican institutions wither, the old nobility decays, equestrian and freedman classes prosper--while ordinary Romans, often unemployed, are entertained and fed at the expense of the Roman state. The Culture of Imperial Rome: Greco-Roman culture reaches its zenith and then declines, in part due to the loss of political freedoms under imperial rule. Holding the Frontier: Emperors Diocletian and Constantine reorganize the Empire as a quasi-totalitarian state, while the promise of Roman peace fades in a world on the brink of collapse and permanently at war. 2 SUGGESTED FILMS The Glory That Remains: Siege of the Rock. Time-Life, 31 minutes The Glory That Remains: Old Soldiers Never Die. Time-Life, 31 minutes Legacy of Rome. ABC, 50 minutes The Christian: Faith and Fear. McGraw-Hill, 39 minutes In Defense of Rome. McGraw-Hill, 16 minutes Roman Roads. The History Channel, 50 minutes Augustus: The First Emperor. A&E, 50 minutes Hail Caesar: Nero. A&E, 50 minutes Hail Caesar: Hadrian. A&E, 50 minutes Hail Caesar: Constantine. A&E, 50 minutes Roman Soldiers. The History Channel, 50 minutes 3.