SURFACES AND BEYOND: THE POLITICAL, IDEOLOGICAL, AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF ANCIENT MAYA IRON-ORE MIRRORS A Thesis Submitted to the Committee on Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science TRENT UNIVERSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada © Copyright by Marc Gordon Blainey Anthropology M.A. Program June 2007 ABSTRACT Surfaces and Beyond: The Political, Ideological, and Economic Significance of Ancient Maya Iron-ore Mirrors Marc Gordon Blainey This thesis examines archaeological evidence pertaining to composite lithic artifacts of the ancient Maya termed “mirrors.” These objects, typically consisting of flat, shiny iron-ore fragments fitted in a mosaic to a backing of stone, ceramic, or wood, are assessed concerning their political, ideological, and economic implications within ancient Maya society. The evidence, including detailed archaeological proveniences and instances of mirrors in iconography, epigraphy, and ethnohistory, is considered from the theoretical standpoints of cognitive archaeology, from the perspectives of shamanism, and a renewed conjunctive approach. Endeavouring to reveal the emic significance mirrors held for the ancient Maya who made and used them, the role of these mirrors is situated within the broader ideological framework of a reflective surface complex. Although prior interpretations are largely correct in designating mirrors as implements for “divinatory scrying,” it is concluded that the evidence allows for a much more refined elucidation than has heretofore been provided. Keywords: ancient Maya, mirrors, iron-ore, archaeology, shamanism, scrying, prestige goods ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my family, particularly my parents, John and Sue Blainey. Without their love and support, this and future intellectual endeavours of mine would be impossible. In acknowledging also my sister, Cara, I am blessed to have such warm and loving people in my life. I would also like to take the opportunity to thank my professors, both those from my undergraduate years at the University of Western Ontario, and those who I have worked closely with at Trent University. Regarding the latter, I am especially indebted to Dr. Paul Healy, my supervisor, whose patience and constructive critique has left an indelible impression on me as both a person and a scholar. I am also grateful for the expert wisdom handed down to me by several of Trent’s Anthropology faculty, including Dr. James Conolly, Dr. Susan Jamieson, and to my committee members Dr. Roger Lohmann, Dr. Joan Vastokas, Dr. Gyles Iannone, and the external examiner Dr. James Garber of Texas State University at San Marcos. I would like to thank my fellow graduate students in Trent’s M.A. program in Anthropology. Not only did we challenge and inspire each other, but I am certain that we will all take the experiences that we shared together at Trent, both academic and social, with us in our future careers. It was a pleasure to work alongside all of you, especially Carrie Dennett, the kind of friend that any archaeology nerd is fortunate to have. Writing this thesis was a difficult undertaking. The persistent accumulation of stress was alleviated by the moral and psychological support provided by my girlfriend Darcie Williams (I love you dearly Ixhi). Last, but certainly far from least, I dedicate this work to Dr. George E. Stuart, former assistant editor of Archaeology at the National Geographic Society, whose compassionate advice and support has been a colossal source of inspiration over the past decade. Thank you George. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………..ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………...iii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………..iv List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….………x Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………..1 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………..…2 Chapter 2: Theory and Methods………………………………………………………..9 Cognitive Archaeology…………………………………………………………………..10 Shamanism……………………………………………………………………………….17 Iron-Ore Mirrors in the Context of Ancient Maya State Shamanism……………23 Recent Trends in Archaeological Theory………………………………………..34 The Revival of a Conjunctive Approach in Archaeology..………………………………37 Chapter 3: Archaeological Mirrors: Contexts and Spatiotemporal Distribution……….41 Spatiotemporal Distribution……………………………………………………………...42 Iron-Ore Mirrors from Outside the Maya Subarea………………………………42 Mirrors of the Olmec…………………………………………………….42 Mirrors of the Maya-Tehuantepec Interface……………………………..45 Mirrors of Central Mexico……………………………………………….48 Mirrors of Oaxaca………………………………………………………..48 Mirrors of Honduras……………………………………………………..49 Mirrors of Costa Rica…………………………………………………….50 Mirrors of Panama……………………………………………………….51 iv Iron-Ore Mirrors of the Maya Subarea…………………………………………..51 The Middle Preclassic (900-300 B.C.)…………………………………………………..56 The Central Lowlands……………………………………………………………56 The Late Preclassic (300 B.C – A.D. 250) ……………………………………………...58 The Southern Highlands…………………………………………………………58 The Northern Highlands…………………………………………………………58 The Southern Lowlands………………………………………………………….58 The Central Lowlands……………………………………………………………59 The Early Classic (A.D. 250 – 600)……………………………………………………...61 The Southern Highlands…………………………………………………………61 The Southern Lowlands………………………………………………………….70 The Central Lowlands……………………………………………………………72 The Late Classic (A.D. 600 – 900)………………………………………………………75 The Southern Highlands…………………………………………………………75 The Southern Lowlands………………………………………………………….75 The Central Lowlands……………………………………………………………81 The Northern Lowlands………………………………………………………….88 The Postclassic (A.D. 900 – 1530)………………………………………………………89 The Southern Highlands…………………………………………………………89 The Northern Highlands…………………………………………………………91 The Central Lowlands……………………………………………………………92 The Northern Lowlands………………………………………………………….93 Problematical Specimens………………………………………………………………...98 v The Southern Highlands…………………………………………………………98 The Northern Highlands………………………………………………………....99 The Southern Lowlands………………………………………………………...100 The Central Lowlands…………………………………………………………..102 The Northern Lowlands………………………………………………………...103 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………104 Chapter 4: Iconographic, Epigraphic, and Ethnohistoric Evidence…………………...119 Iconographic Mirrors…………………………………………………………...120 Recent History of Ancient Maya Iconographic Studies………………..121 Types of Iconographic Mirrors…………………………………………124 With / Without Flared Backing…………………………………125 Embedded / Protruding Mirror Surface………………………...127 With / Without Curious Protuberances…………………………127 Stand / Assistant as Support for Mirror………………………...129 With / Without Woven Basketry Support………………………130 Active / Passive Function in Depicted Scene…………………..131 Natural / Supernatural Backdrop of Scene……………………...131 Notable Polychrome Specimens………………………………………..132 K505……………………………………………………………132 K530…………………………………………………………….133 K559…………………………………………………………….134 K2929 & K5944………………………………………………...135 K2970…………………………………………………………...136 vi K5764 & K7265………………………………………………...136 The Reflective Surface Complex in Epigraphy…………………………137 The nen/lem/-il Grapheme T24/T617…………………………..139 Incidences of T24/T617………………………………………...141 The PSS “Initial Sign”………………………………………….142 Ch’ab (T712)…………………………………………………...143 Mirror “accession” glyph……………………………………….143 B’a (T501)………………………………………………………145 tz’i-b’a (Tz’ib)…………………………………………………..146 Mirror Maize-ball……………………………………………….146 Phonetic Elements with Infixed T24/T617……………………..147 T24/T617 Grapheme Associated with Deities………………….147 K’awil..........................................................................................148 Other Instances of T24/T617…………………………………...149 Ethnohistoric References, the Popol Vuh, and Ethnography…………...153 Ethnohistoric sources…………………………………………...153 Popol Vuh……………………………………………………….156 Ethnography…………………………………………………….157 Mirrors in Ancient Maya Cosmology…………………………………………..159 Chapter 5: The Economic Geology of Ancient Maya Iron-Ore Mirrors……………...163 Iron-Ore in the Maya Subarea…………………………………………………..164 The Geology of Iron-Ore……………………………………………….164 Pyrite (FeS2)……………………………………………………166 vii Hematite (Fe2O3)………………………………………………167 Possible Iron-Ore Source Deposits Exploited for Mirror Manufacture...168 Guatemalan Massive deposit…………………………………...170 Guatemalan Residual deposit…………………………………...171 Chixoy Polochic Fault Zone……………………………………171 El Quetzal mine…………………………………………………172 Mochito mine…………………………………………………...172 Agalteca………………………………………………………...172 El Salvadorian deposits…………………………………………172 Northern Nicaraguan deposits…………………………………..173 Coastal-Shore deposits………………………………………….173 Belizean and Yucatan deposits…………………………………174 Mexican deposits outside the Maya Subarea…………………...175 Implications of Iron-Ore Deposit Locations for Ancient Maya Mining..175 Inferences on Manufacturing Techniques………………………………177 Mirrors and the Ancient Maya Trade Economy………………………………..180 Ancient Maya Economics and Trade…………………………………...181 The Place of Iron-Ore & Finished Mirrors within the Trade Economy..186 Future Prospects for the Economic Geology of Iron-Ore Mirrors……………...188 Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusions………………………………………………...193 Cognitive Archaeology, Shamanism, and the Conjunctive Approach…………193 Cognitive Archaeology…………………………………………………194 The Archaeology of Shamanism………………………………………..194 viii The Revived Conjunctive Approach………….......…………………….195 Archaeological Distribution in Space and Time………………………………..195 Iconography…………………………………………………………………….198 Epigraphy,