THE ROLE OF FEDERALISM IN MITIGATING ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN PLURAL SOCIETIES: NIGERIA AND MALAYSIA IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE CHUKWUNENYE CLIFFORD NJOKU DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND STRATEGIC STUDIES FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR 2015 THE ROLE OF FEDERALISM IN MITIGATING ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN PLURAL SOCIETIES: NIGERIA AND MALAYSIA IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE CHUKWUNENYE CLIFFORD NJOKU AHA080051 THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFULMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND STRATEGIC STUDIES FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR 2015 UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA ORIGINIAL LITERARY WORD DECLARATION Name of Candidate: Chukwunenye Clifford Njoku (I/C/Passport No. A06333058) Registration/Matric No: AHA080051 Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this Work”): The Role of Federalism in Mitigating Ethnic Conflicts in Plural Societies: Nigeria and Malaysia in Comparative Perspective Field of Study: International Relations I do solemnly and sincerely declare that: (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any except or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work. (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that in the course of making this Work, I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subjected to legal action or any action as may be determined by UM. Candidate’s Signature ------ Date Subscribed and solemnly declared before, Witness’s Signature ------- Date Name: Designation: i ABSTRACT This study examines the challenges of ethnic conflict in Nigeria and Malaysian plural societies, in view of the demands their diverse ethnic groups impose on nation-building. This tension is largely exacerbated by factors that favour group dominance particularly on the right to resources which mostly fractures effort at achieving national cohesion. This study is important given the persistent problem of instability which has affected the development and well-being in both countries. The ethnic problem in Nigeria is centered on two polar extremes - the Government position that “Nigeria’s unity is not negotiable and must not be discussed” in its lopsided nation-building posture, and some ethnic groups that see themselves as viable nations entrapped in an invented nation-state. This thesis discusses reoccurring problems that have bedeviled Nigeria as a nation since its independence in 1960 as observed in continuing ethnic conflicts, which are less mitigated due to its fledging federalism which ought to have enhanced interethnic harmony within its multi-ethnic society. The thesis highlights ethnic demands resulting in militancy over “Resource Control”, “Religious Intolerance” as well as “Secessionist Movements” in the face of persistent inequality and unfairness to some ethnic groups in Nigeria. This may explain disunity in Nigeria. These are some of the contested issues that have fractured efforts at achieving smooth nation-building and national development. This is the focus of the thesis, which provides a lens to view Malaysia’s achievement in its interethnic harmony, political stability and social development. However, investigation reveals how leadership role and policy implementation over decades in Malaysia have led to good wealth distribution although with inherent institutionalised preferential policies in favour of its Malay ethnic majority as a solace against tension. It explains Malaysia’s ethnicised federal practice which is uncommon that largely constitutes huge ethnic tensions beneath the surface in the country as observed in its grumbling minority groups while the system has remained considerably and progressively stable. Hence this work reconciles the problem in Nigeria within the embrace of progress made by Malaysia whose similar society has lived a relatively peaceful life for over half a century. Inequality, denial and social exclusion, inept leadership as well as institutional inadequacy are found to have exacerbated ethnic conflicts in Nigeria hence the state totters in the face of tension. This study is a mirror to view construction and reconstruction in Nigeria’s sociopolitical space which defines its continuity and discontinuity, while it aligns Nigeria to Malaysia’s success in interethnic balance. Given this insight, the thesis argues that no multiethnic nation-state makes substantial social progress or survives outside the axis of its interethnic balance. This is Nigeria’s challenge in nation-building. Significantly, the study relies on empirical evidence as well as secondary data while providing logic for comparison. Relatively, theory of federalism is adopted in this study as conflict mitigating mechanism in plural societies to clarify different issues in both countries while the thesis concludes with relevant recommendations. ii ABSTRAK Kajian ini meneliti cabaran-cabaran dalam konflik etnik dalam masyarakat plural di Nigeria dan Malaysia yang masing-masing mempunyai pelbagai tuntutan ke atas pembinaan negara. Ketegangan ini sebahagian besarnya diburukkan lagi oleh faktor-faktor yang memihak kepada dominasi kumpulan terutamanya tentang hak untuk mendapat sumber- sumber utama negara dan dominasi ini kebanyakannya boleh merosakkan perpaduan. Kajian ini penting memandangkan masalah ketidakstabilan berterusan dan membantutkan pembangunan serta kesejahteraan di kedua-dua negara. Masalah etnik di Nigeria berpusat pada dua ekstrem - kedudukan Kerajaan bahawa "perpaduan Nigeria tidak boleh dirunding dan tidak perlu dibincangkan" dan kedudukan sesetengah kumpulan etnik yang melihat diri mereka sebagai negara berdaya maju tetapi terperangkap dalam negara-bangsa yang direkakan. Tesis ini membincangkan masalah yang sering muncul yang mencengkam Negara Nigeria sejak kemerdekaan pada tahun 1960, sepertimana yang berlaku dalam meneruskan konflik etnik yang disebabkan oleh persekutuan untuk mempertingkatkan keharmonian masyarakat yang berbilang etnik. Tesis ini menonjolkan tuntutan-tuntutan etnik yang menyebabkan wujudnya tindakan militan terhadap beberapa isu penting iaitu "Kawalan Sumber Utama", "Intoleransi Agama" serta "Gerakan Pemisah" dalam keadaan tiadanya ketidaksamaan dan ketidakadilan bagi semua kumpulan di Nigeria. Demikian antara isu-isu yang didebatkan yang menghambat usaha-usaha dalam pembinaan dan pembangunan negara.Walaubagaimanapun kajian menunjukkan bahawa peranan kepimpinan dan perlaksanaan polisi di Malaysia semenjak beberapa dekad yang lalu telah menyumbang kepada pengagihan kekayaan yang saksama, sungguuhpun wujudnya polisi polisi yang memihak kepada ethnik kaum Melayu untuk mengurangkan ketegangan di kalangan kaum tersebut. Ini menunjukkan bahawa polisi ethnik yang diamalkan oleh Kerajaan Malaysia, dimana amalan tersebut jarang dipratikkan oleh negera lain, telah menyumbang kepada ketegangan dan ketidakpuasan hati di kalangan kaum minority walaupun polisi tersebut kekal stabil dan utuh. Dengan itu kajian di Malaysia ini memberi pengajaran kepada Nigeria untuk melihat kemajuan Malaysia yang ciri masyarakatnya adalah sama tetapi secara relatifnya hidup dalam keadaan aman selama lebih setengah abad. Ketidaksamaan, penafian dan penyisihan sosial, kepimpinan tidak cekap serta kelemahan institusi didapati memburukkan lagi konflik etnik di Nigeria. Kajian ini merupakan cermin untuk melihat dan menilai ruang sosiopolitik Nigeria yang mentakrifkan kesinambungan dan ketakselanjaran, dan pada masa yang sama ia menjajarkan Nigeria dengan Malaysia. Berdasarkan wawasan tersebut, tesis ini menghujahkan bahawa tidak ada negara pelbagai etnik yang dapat mencapai kemajuan sosial yang besar di luar paksi keseimbangan antara etnik itu. Inilah cabaran Nigeria dalam pembinaan negara. Secara signifikan, kajian ini bergantung kepada bukti empirikal serta data sekunder di samping menyediakan hujahan logik bagi tujuan perbandingan. Secara relatifnya, teori persekutuan yang digunakan dalam kajian ini sebagai mekanisme pengurangan konflik dalam masyarakat majmuk untuk menjelaskan isu-isu yang berbeza di kedua-dua negara dan tesis ini diakhiri dengan cadangan yang sesuai. iii DEDICATION Dedicated to the Cause of Good Governance in Nigeria iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT God’s word says, “But those who are noble plan noble things and by noble things they stand”{Isaiah 32:8}. Hence I give all thanks and due honour to God Almighty who inspired and carried this academic work to its conclusion. Indeed, when we delight in God, our deepest desires for love, significance and justice are met in him. Truly, in varied ways and in different circumstances certain people played roles that enabled me to overcome challenges in concluding this study. My appreciation goes to those whose moral and material