Presenting Archaeological Sites to the Public in Scotland Steven M.Timoney Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, May 2008 Abstract This thesis is an exploration of the nature of archaeological sites presented to the public in Scotland through an analysis of five case studies. The project utilises qualitative in-depth in interviews, an approach that, although well recognised in other social sciences, has been little-used archaeology. For this project, semi-structured recorded interviews were undertaken with participants at the sites, which were subsequently transcribed and analysed using QSR NVivo software. This approach, the rationales behind using it, and benefits for research in public archaeology, will be discussed in detail. This will be followed by an in- depth analysis of the roles and significances of archaeology, the ways it influences and is influenced by perceptions of the past, and the values placed upon it. The essence of the thesis will then focus on the in-depth analysis of the case studies. Backgrounds will be given to each of the sites, providing a framework from which extracts of interviews will be used to elucidate on themes and ideas of participant discussions. This approach allows for the real, lived experiences of respondents to be relayed, and direct quotations will be used to provide a greater context for discussions. This will reflect a number of recurring themes, which developed during interviews, both within sites and across sites. The interviews will also reflect the individual roles and functions of archaeological sites for the public, and the often idiosyncratic nature of participant engagements with archaeology. The information and insights gained from this research will then be considered with regard to potential impacts on the presentation of archaeological sites to the public in general. Themes and ideas which are developed in the case study chapters will be discussed in more detail, before suggestions for changes to the ways archaeological sites are presented are made. Finally, specific suggestions for changing approaches to the case study sites will be considered. ii Contents 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Aims 2 1.2. Methodology 2 1.2.1. Development of qualitative research 4 1.2.2. What is qualitative research? 4 1.2.3. In-depth interviews 6 1.2.4. Benefits of these techniques 8 1.2.5. The role of the qualitative researcher 9 1.3. Participants 10 1.4. The interviews 11 1.4.1. Ethics and consent 12 1.4.2. Qualitative research and archaeology 12 2. The Public Face of Archaeology 14 2.1. The development of an interest in the past 14 2.2. Antiquarians and a modern interest in the past 16 2.3. Legislation and the archaeological monuments of Britain 18 2.4. Public archaeology 20 2.5. Engaging with archaeology 22 2.6. Valuing archaeological sites 24 2.7. Interpreting the past 25 2.8. Constructing the past 26 2.9. Presenting the past 30 2.9.1. Interpretive panels 33 2.9.2. Visitor centres 35 2.9.3. Developments in information and communication technology 36 2.10. Successful interpretation 37 2.10.1. Difficulties with presenting sites 38 2.11. Archaeological research and the public 39 2.11.1. ‘The public’ 40 2.12. Conservation of archaeological sites 41 2.13. Reconstructions 42 2.14. Presenting multi-period sites 45 iii 2.15. Visiting sites 46 2.16. Public expectations 46 2.17. Authenticity 47 2.17.1. Aura 49 2.18. Heritage 49 2.18.1. Tangible and intangible heritage 50 2.18.2. Heritage as a reflection of society 51 2.19. Archaeological sites and the creation of identities 52 2.19.1. Local culture and identity 52 2.19.2. The modern development of heritage 53 2.20. Archaeology on the ground 55 3. Case Study 1: The Yarrows Archaeological Trail, Caithness 56 3.1. Background to Caithness 56 3.2. Archaeological research in Caithness 56 3.3. The archaeology of the Yarrows basin: a linear narrative 58 3.4. The Yarrows Archaeological Trail 60 3.4.1. Local organisations 64 3.5. Participant knowledge and expectations of the Trail 65 3.6. Presentation of the Trail 68 3.6.1. The leaflet 73 3.7. Preservation and conservation of the archaeological remains 81 3.8. Authenticity and aura 83 3.9. Archaeological sites as economic and community resources 88 3.10. Summary 90 4. Case Study 2: Tarbat Discovery Centre, Portmahomack 94 4.1. Background to Tarbat Ness 94 4.2. Early Medieval archaeology of Easter Ross: a linear narrative 94 4.2.1. Tarbat – An Early-Medieval Monastery 96 4.3. Tarbat Discovery Centre and Programme 98 4.4. Visitor knowledge and expectations of Tarbat Discovery Centre 102 4.5. Presentation of the Centre 105 4.6. The carved stones 107 iv 4.7. Popularity of non-archaeological displays 109 4.8. Authenticity and touching the past 110 4.9. The excavations 112 4.10. The enigma of the Picts 114 4.11. Christianity 117 4.12. Identity and community 118 4.13. Summary 122 5. Case Study 3: Rough Castle, Bonnybridge 126 and the Antonine Wall 5.1. Background to the Antonine Wall and Central Scotland 126 5.2. World Heritage nomination application 127 5.3. The construction and role of the Antonine Wall: a linear narrative 128 5.4. Rough Castle 131 5.5. Participant Knowledge and Expectations of Rough Castle 134 5.6. Presentation of Rough Castle 137 5.7. Imagining the past on the Antonine Wall 144 5.8. General perceptions on the Antonine Wall 145 5.8.1. The Antonine Wall and World Heritage 145 5.8.2. The Antonine Wall and Scottish heritage 148 5.8.3. Local community and the Antonine Wall 151 5.8.4. Creating value and a sense of place on the Antonine Wall 153 5.8.5. The Antonine Wall un urban settings 154 5.8.6. Valuing the Antonine Wall 156 5.8.7. Tourism and the Antonine Wall 160 5.9. Summary 161 6. Case Study 4 – Urquhart Castle, Loch Ness 164 6.1. Background 165 6.2. A history of Urquhart Castle: a linear narrative 155 6.3. Urquhart Castle and visitor centre 156 6.4. Knowledge and expectations 170 6.5. Reasons for visiting 173 6.6. The presentation of the site 174 v 6.7. On-site interpretation 179 6.7.1. Difficulty with the level of remains 182 6.8. Other visitors 182 6.9. Touring Urquhart Castle 184 6.10. Reconstructing Urquhart 186 6.11. Imagining the past 188 6.12. Authenticity 189 6.13. Aura 192 6.14. Perceptions of Scotland 193 6.15. Summary 195 7. Case Study 5 – Skara Brae, Orkney 198 7.1. Background to Orkney 198 7.2. Orkney and archaeology 198 7.3. Skara Brae and late Neolithic settlement in Orkney: a linear narrative 199 7.4. Presentation of Skara Brae 202 7.5. Pre-visit knowledge and expectations 208 7.6. Thoughts on the presentation of Skara Brae 212 7.7. Thoughts on the site 216 7.8. Fragility of the site 217 7.9. Other visitors 220 7.10. The visitor centre 222 7.11. The reconstruction 223 7.12. Changing perceptions of the past 227 7.12.1. Romantic views of the past 227 7.13. Authenticity and aura 228 7.14. Summary 231 8. Conclusions and Recommendations 235 8.1. The presentation of archaeological sites 236 8.2. Visiting archaeological sites 237 8.3. The archaeological remains 239 8.4. The presentation and interpretation of sites 241 8.5. Choosing which sites to present 245 vi 8.5.1. Creating value 246 8.6. Linear and multivocal narratives 248 8.6.1. The public and multivocal narratives 249 8.7. The location of sites in the landscape 250 8.8. Experiencing the past 252 8.9. Authenticity and aura 253 8.9.1. Landscape and setting 254 8.9.2. The use of reconstructions 255 8.9.3. The importance of artefacts 255 8.9.4. Aura 256 8.9.5. The romance of the past 257 8.10. The role(s) of archaeological sites 258 8.10.1. Archaeological sites as visitor attractions 258 8.10.2. Other visitors 260 8.11. Conserving and preserving sites and monuments 260 8.11.1. Alternative uses of sites 261 8.11.2. Touching the past 262 8.12. Heritage, values and identity 263 8.13. Recommendations for the case studies 265 8.13.1. Yarrows Archaeological Trail 266 8.13.2. Tarbat Discovery Centre 267 8.13.3. Rough Castle and the Antonine Wall 269 8.13.4. Urquhart Castle 270 8.13.5. Skara Brae 271 8.14. General recommendations 272 8.15. Postscript: putting theory into practice 276 Appendices 278 Appendix I Research Questions 278 Appendix II Copyright Clearance Form 280 Appendix III Information Sheet 281 Appendix IV Interviewees Biographical Details 282 Appendix V Sample Interview Transcripts 287 Bibliography 319 vii List of Tables 1 Representations used on archaeological sites (from Copeland 2004, 30 138: Table 6.1) viii List of Figures 1 Scotland showing location of case studies 3 2 Information board overkill at Maeshowe chambered cairn, Orkney 34 (photo S. Timoney) 3 Archaeolink visitor centre, Oyne, Aberdeenshire (photo S. Timoney) 35 4 Reconstruction drawing, Birdoswald Fort, Hadrian’s Wall (photo S. 42 Timoney) 5 Reconstruction Bronze Age farm, Tanumshede, Sweden (photo S. 43 Timoney) 6 Stereotypical gender roles in reconstructions (from Dyer 1990, fig. 39) 44 7 Stereotypical gender roles in reconstructions (from Dyer 1990, fig.