ARTICLE I LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT CONTENTS Page Section 1. Legislative Powers ................................................................................................... 63 Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances ............................................................. 63 The Theory Elaborated and Implemented ................................................................ 63 Judicial Enforcement .................................................................................................. 65 Bicameralism ...................................................................................................................... 70 Enumerated, Implied, Resulting, and Inherent Powers .................................................. 71 Delegation of Legislative Power ........................................................................................ 73 Origin of the Doctrine of Nondelegability ................................................................. 73 Delegation Which Is Permissible ............................................................................... 75 Filling Up the Details .......................................................................................... 76 Contingent Legislation ........................................................................................ 76 The Effective Demise of the Nondelegation Doctrine ............................................... 78 The Regulatory State ........................................................................................... 78 Standards .............................................................................................................. 82 Foreign Affairs ..................................................................................................... 86 Delegations to the States ..................................................................................... 86 Delegation to Private Persons ............................................................................. 87 Delegation and Individual Liberties ................................................................... 88 Punishment of Violations ........................................................................................... 89 Congressional Investigations ............................................................................................. 90 Source of the Power to Investigate ............................................................................ 90 Investigations of Conduct of Executive Department ................................................ 92 Investigations of Members of Congress ..................................................................... 93 Investigations in Aid of Legislation ........................................................................... 93 Purpose ................................................................................................................. 93 Protection of Witnesses: Pertinency and Related Matters ............................... 96 Protection of Witnesses: Constitutional Guarantees ......................................... 100 Sanctions of the Investigatory Power: Contempt ..................................................... 103 Section 2. The House of Representatives ................................................................................. 105 Clause 1. Congressional Districting .................................................................................. 105 Elector Qualifications .................................................................................................. 109 Clause 2. Qualifications of Members of Congress ............................................................ 110 When the Qualifications Must Be Possessed ............................................................ 110 Exclusivity of Constitutional Qualifications ............................................................. 110 Congressional Additions ............................................................................................. 110 State Additions ............................................................................................................ 113 Clause 3. Apportionment of Seats in the House .............................................................. 114 The Census Requirement ........................................................................................... 114 Clause 4. Vacancies ............................................................................................................ 116 Clause 5. Officers and Power of Impeachment ................................................................ 116 Section 3. The Senate ................................................................................................................ 116 Clause 1. Composition and Selection ................................................................................ 116 Clause 2. Classes of Senators ............................................................................................ 116 55 56 Section 3. The SenateÐContinued Clause 3. Qualifications ..................................................................................................... 117 Clause 4. The Vice President ............................................................................................. 117 Clause 5. Officers ................................................................................................................ 117 Clause 6. Trial of Impeachments ...................................................................................... 117 Clause 7. Judgments on Impeachment ............................................................................. 117 Section 4. Elections .................................................................................................................... 117 Clause 1. Congressional Power to Regulate ..................................................................... 117 Federal Legislation Protecting Electoral Process ..................................................... 118 Clause 2. Time of Assembling ........................................................................................... 121 Section 5. Powers and Duties of the Houses ........................................................................... 121 Clause 1. Power to Judge Elections .................................................................................. 122 ``A Quorum to Do Business'' ....................................................................................... 122 Clause 2. Rules of Proceedings .......................................................................................... 123 Powers of the Houses Over Members ........................................................................ 124 Clause 3. Duty to Keep a Journal ..................................................................................... 125 Clause 4. Adjournments ..................................................................................................... 121 Section 6. Rights and Disabilities of Members ........................................................................ 125 Clause 1. Compensation and Immunities ......................................................................... 126 Congressional Pay ....................................................................................................... 126 Privilege from Arrest .................................................................................................. 127 Privilege of Speech or Debate ..................................................................................... 127 Members ............................................................................................................... 127 Congressional Employees .................................................................................... 132 Clause 2. Disabilities .......................................................................................................... 134 Appointment to Executive Office ............................................................................... 134 Incompatible Offices .................................................................................................... 135 Section 7. Legislative Process ................................................................................................... 135 Clause 1. Revenue Bills ..................................................................................................... 136 Clause 2. Approval by the President ................................................................................ 137 The Veto Power ........................................................................................................... 138 Clause 3. Presentation of Resolutions .............................................................................. 141 The Legislative Veto ............................................................................................ 141 Section 8. Powers of Congress .................................................................................................. 144 Clause 1. Power to Tax and Spend ................................................................................... 144 Kinds of Taxes Permitted ........................................................................................... 144 Decline of the Forbidden Subject Matter Test ................................................... 144 Federal Taxation of State Interests ...................................................................