Chapter 7: Alkyl Halides and Nucleophilic Substitution SN2 Reaction Mechanism: Notes: • One step reaction • Order of reactivity: Methyl > Primary > Secondary > Tertiary • Stereochemistry: Inversion of configuration at stereogenic center (because of backside attack) • Better leaving group = faster reaction • Favors: Strong nucleophiles • Favors: Not-sterically-hindered alkyl halides • Favors: Polar aprotic solvents (cannot hydrogen bond) SN1 Reaction Mechanism: Notes: • Two step reaction • Order of reactivity: Tertiary > Secondary > Primary > Methyl • Stereochemistry: Racemization (because the carbocation is planar) • Better leaving group = faster reaction • Favors: Weak nucleophiles • Favors: Sterically hindered alkyl halides • Favors: Polar protic solvents (can hydrogen bond) Important Trends Chapter 8: Alkyl Halides and Elimination Reactions E2 Reaction Mechanism: Notes: • One step reaction • Order of reactivity: Tertiary > Secondary > Primary • Stereochemistry: antiperiplanar arrangement of H and X • Better leaving group = faster reaction • Favors: Polar aprotic solvents, strong bases • Products follow Zaitsev rule (more substituted alkene is the major product) E1 Reaction Mechanism: Notes: • Two step reaction • Order of reactivity: Tertiary > Secondary > Primary • Stereochemistry: Trigonal planar carbocation intermediate • Better leaving group = faster reaction • Favors: Polar protic solvents, weak bases • Products follow Zaitsev rule Chapter 9: Alcohols, Ethers, and Epoxides Preparation of Alcohols Mechanism: Notes: • SN2 mechanism Preparation of Alkoxides Mechanism: Preparation of Ethers (Williamson Ether Synthesis) Mechanism: Notes: • SN2 mechanism Preparation of Epoxides Mechanism: Alcohol Dehydration: Secondary and Tertiary Mechanism: Notes: • E1 mechanism • Zaitsev rule applies (the most substituted product is the major product) • Carbocation rearrangements are possible Alcohol Dehydration: Primary Mechanism: Notes: • E2 mechanism • Zaitsev rule applies Other Reagents to Form Alkenes: POCl3 and Pyridine Notes: • E2 mechanism Alkyl Halides Formation from Alcohols: Secondary and Tertiary Mechanism: Notes: • SN1 mechanism • Carbocation rearrangements are possible Alkyl Halides Formation from Alcohols: Primary Mechanism: Notes: • SN2 mechanism (inversion of stereochemistry) Other Reagents to Form Alkyl Halides: SOCl2 and PBr3 Notes: • SN2 reaction, both reagents will lead to inversion of stereochemistry Reaction with Alkyl Tosylates First step: • Note: Stereochemistry is retained Second step: Ether Cleavage with Strong Acids: Secondary and Tertiary Mechanism: Notes: • SN1 mechanism Ether Cleavage with Strong Acids: Primary Mechanism: Notes: • SN2 mechanism Epoxide Reactions with Acids Mechanism: Notes: • SN1/SN2 mechanism • Attacks at the more substituted carbon • Backside attack = inversion of configuration Epoxide Reactions with Strong Nucleophiles Mechanism: Notes: • SN2 mechanism • Attacks the less substituted carbon • Backside attack = inversion of configuration Chapter 10: Alkenes Hydrohalogenation Mechanism: Notes: • Carbocation rearrangements are possible • Markovnikov’s rule is followed (H bonds to less subbed carbon, X bonds to more subbed carbon) • Stereochemistry: Syn (added to same sides) and anti (add to opposite sides) addition Hydration Mechanism: Notes: • Carbocation rearrangements are possible • Markovnikov’s rule is followed • Same mechanism if using alcohol instead of water to make ethers • Stereochemistry: Syn and anti-addition occur Halogenation Mechanism: Notes: • Halogen attacks most subbed carbon in halonium ion • No carbocation rearrangements • Stereochemistry: anti-addition Halohydrin Formation Mechanism: Notes: • H2O attacks more subbed carbon (recall acid-catalyzed ring opening of an epoxide) • No carbocation rearrangements • Stereochemistry: Anti-addition • Special reagent: NBS o Mechanism: Hydroboration-Oxidation Mechanism: Notes: • You only need to know the hydroboration step, not the oxidation step • Anti-markovnikov (OH is added to less subbed carbon) • No carbocation rearrangements • Syn-addition • Retention of configuration • Same mechanism as 9-BBN Chapter 11: Alkynes Preparation of Alkynes Mechanism (2nd step): Hydrohalogenation Mechanism: Notes: • Markovnikov’s rule is followed • The carbocation will form on the more substituted or resonance-stabilized carbon Halogenation Mechanism: Notes: • Anti-addition • Halogens will attack the more substituted or resonance-stabilized side Hydration Mechanism: Notes: • Markovnikov’s rule is followed • Unstable enol • End product is a ketone • Acid-catalyzed Hydroboration-Oxidation Mechanism: Notes: • Anti-markovnikov • Unstable enol • End product is aldehyde (if it’s a terminal alkyne) or ketone Formation of Acetylide Anions • Typical bases used are NaNH2 and NaH Acetylide Anion Reactions with Alkyl Halides • SN2 if primary alkyl halide, secondary or tertiary alkyl halide = E2 Acetylide Anion Reactions with Epoxides • SN2 mechanism • Acetylide attacks the less substituted carbon on the epoxide Chapter 12: Oxidation and Reduction Reduction of Alkenes • Syn addition occurs Reduction of Aldehydes Reduction of Ketones • Stereochemistry: Racemic mixture Reduction of Alkynes • 2 equivalents of H2 are required • 4 new C-H bonds are formed • Syn addition occurs = cis alkene product • Anti-addition occurs = trans alkene product Reduction of Alkyl Halides • SN2 mechanism • Attacks the less substituted carbon if attacking epoxides Epoxidation Mechanism: Notes: • One step reaction • Syn addition • Reaction is stereospecific (syn alkene = cis product, trans alkene = trans product) Syn Dihydroxylation • Cis products • Stereochemistry: Racemic mixture (but for the example above the products are identical) Trans Dihydroxylation • Trans products • Stereochemistry: Racemic mixture • Step 2 can also use KOH instead of sulfuric acid and water Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes Oxidative Cleavage of Alkynes Oxidation of Alcohols Chapter 15 Radical Reactions Halogenation of Alkanes Mechanism: Notes: • Must be Br2 or Cl2 • Chlorination is faster and less selective than bromination = 2+ products • Bromination = 1 product (most substitued carbon is chosen) • Stereochemistry: Racemic mixture Radical Addition of HBr to an Alkene Mechanism: Notes: • Bromine gets added to the less substituted side (vs adding to the most substituted side with only H-Br) Chapter 16: Conjugation, Resonance, and Dienes 1,3 Diene Electrophilic Addition Mechanism: Notes: • Markovnikov’s rule is followed • Kinetic product: 1,2 product. More formed at lower temperatures • Thermodynamic product: 1,4 product. More formed at higher temperatures Diels-Alder Reaction Mechanism: Notes: • Reaction is one-step (concerted) • Diene must be in s-cis conformation • Trans diene = no reaction • Stereochemistry is retained • (ie. If the dienophile was trans, product will be trans) Chapter 17: Benzene and Aromatic Compounds Huckel’s Rule .