Nou Estat d’Europa Globalisation, language and identity in Catalonia: a contemporary perspective. by Steven Byrne Thesis presented to the University of Limerick for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Supervisors: Dr David Atkinson and Dr Máiréad Moriarty External: Dr Agurtzane Elordui Submitted to the University of Limerick, May 2019. Abstract The processes associated with globalisation have seen Catalonia become an ethnolinguistically diverse region. Additionally, a vibrant civic and political movement for an independent Catalonia has brought a renewed urgency to questions about what it means, personally and politically, to speak or not to speak Catalan or Spanish in 21st century Catalonia. The current study seeks to address a gap in the literature by investigating the attitudes of members of independence organisations toward the Catalan and Spanish languages against the backdrop of the Catalan independence movement. This research examines the respondents’ language attitudes from a language orientations perspective, using Ruiz’s (1984, 2010) framework of language-as-a-problem and language-as-a-resource to unpack the complexities of the situation in present-day Catalonia. This research was conducted with members of independence organisations operating in the city of Girona and involved qualitative research methods, specifically focus groups and narrative interviews. This study indicates that a fuller understanding of the complex situation in Catalonia may be facilitated through qualitative methodologies, which have the potential to explore attitudes in-depth. The analysis of the data reveals a diversity of attitudes toward both Catalan and Spanish, with both languages being mobilised in diverse combinations for a wide range of purposes. The comments of the respondents indicate that, against the backdrop of the independence process in the region, bilingualism and multilingualism have become highly valued in the territory. i Acknowledgements I am indebted to the research participants from Girona, who generously gave up their time and agreed to contribute to this study and share their stories with me. This thesis would not have been possible without them. A great debt of gratitude is owed to all informants, as well as to those who facilitated participant recruitment on my behalf. The completion of this thesis represents the product of a successful collaboration on many fronts. First and foremost, special thanks go to my Ph.D. supervisors, Dr David Atkinson and Dr Máiréad Moriarty. I have been privileged to work with them and their complementary expertise has been invaluable, as has their guidance, support, suggestions, judicious critiques and encouragement. Their expert supervision helped me from the start and I am extremely grateful for their continued patience and valuable advice during my candidature. In addition, I express my gratitude to the University of Limerick, the Department of Sociology, in particular, Dr Carmel Hannan, Dr James Carr and Professor Eoin Devereux. Your time and amiability made it possible to complete this work. I would also like to thank the Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences (AHSS) and the School of Modern Languages and Applied Linguistics (MLAL) at the University of Limerick for the numerous scholarships and travel bursaries received during the duration of this research. In Girona, I thank all those who made this research possible, in particular, Dr Narcís Iglésias Franch for all his help and advice during my field trips. I would also like to thank Ateneu d'Accio Cultural, Candidatura d’Unitat Popular, Ateneu 24 de Juny, Súmate, Assemblea Nacional Catalana and Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya for opening your doors and sharing your stories with me. Finally, my infinite thanks go to my family, without whose support and encouragement I could have never completed this thesis. Thank you to my Mother and Father and to my two Brothers. This would not have happened without you. Thank you all. ii Declaration I, Steven Byrne, declare that this doctoral thesis is entirely my own work and that all sources that have been used have been referenced. Any mistakes or oversights within the work are entirely my fault and will be corrected. Signed: Date: iii Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... ii Declaration .......................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ iv List of Tables........................................................................................................................ ix List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... x Key to Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xi Chapter One: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Aims and Objectives .................................................................................................. 4 1.1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Catalonia: An Overview ................................................................................................... 7 1.2.1 Linguistic Setting ....................................................................................................... 7 1.2.2 Girona: Setting the Context ..................................................................................... 10 1.3 Thesis Overview ............................................................................................................. 12 1.3.1 Chapter Two-Literature Review .............................................................................. 12 1.3.2 Chapter Three-Sociolinguistic Setting .................................................................... 12 1.3.3 Chapter Four-Methodology ..................................................................................... 13 1.3.4 Chapter Five-Analysis ............................................................................................. 13 1.3.5 Chapter Six-Discussion ........................................................................................... 13 1.3.6 Chapter Seven-Conclusion ...................................................................................... 14 Chapter Two: Literature Review ......................................................................................... 15 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 Globalisation and Languages: Catalonia Today............................................................. 15 2.2.1 Globalisation ............................................................................................................ 16 2.2.2 Globalisation and Languages................................................................................... 19 2.3 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................. 23 2.3.1 Ruiz’s Orientations .................................................................................................. 23 2.3.1.1 Language-as-a-Resource ................................................................................... 25 iv 2.3.1.2 Language-as-a-Problem .................................................................................... 28 2.3.2 Language Attitudes: A Social Psychological Definition ......................................... 30 2.3.2.1 Attitudes and Ideologies ................................................................................... 33 2.4 Previous Research: The Catalan Context ....................................................................... 36 2.4.1 20th Century: Polarisation ........................................................................................ 36 2.4.2 21st Century: ‘Singular and Plural’ .......................................................................... 39 2.4.2.1 La Franja ........................................................................................................... 47 2.4.3 Summary .................................................................................................................. 48 2.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter Three: The Socio-Political Context; Past and Present ........................................ 51 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 51 3.2 Origins ............................................................................................................................ 52 3.2.1 19th Century ............................................................................................................