Contents Abbreviations 11 Preface 17 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 19 PART I ACADEMIC VIEWS: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS OF PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS 33 Chapter 1 United Nations Peace Operations: The Brahimi Report in Context by Mats Berdal 35 Introduction: The Debate on the Role of the UN in Modern International Relations 35 What is “Traditional” about “Traditional” UN Peacekeeping? 38 The Nature of Change in UN Field Operations 40 The Brahimi Report and the Problem of UN Reform 46 Conclusion: A More Effective Service Agency for the “International Community” 52 Chapter 2 The Development of Peacekeeping Forces by John Mackinlay 55 Introduction 55 The Traditional Peacekeeping Model 57 The New Conflict Environment 63 The International Response 68 Conclusion: Conceptualizing Complex Humanitarian Emergencies 71 Chapter 3 UN, OSCE and NATO: International Division of Labor in Peace Support Operations by Wolfgang Biermann 75 Introduction 75 Division of Labor in European Conflict Management in the 1990s 76 The Conceptual Challenge: Early De-Escalation of Conflict 79 The Division of Labor between NATO and UN during the Experimental Phase of UNPROFOR 84 Survey: Lessons Learned by Practitioners from an Unusual Division of Labor during UNPROFOR 88 The UN in Former Yugoslavia: Forgotten Successes 92 Conclusion 97 Chapter 4 Civil-Military Relations in International Peace Operations by Michael Pugh 109 Introduction 109 State-Centrism and Modern Conflict 112 Nationals, Internationals and Transnationals 117 Civilian Sector in Flux 121 Institutionalization of Civil-Military Cooperation 127 Conclusion: The Cosmopolitan Distance 130 PART II PRACTICIONERS’ VIEWS: LESSONS LEARNED IN THE BALKANS 135 Chapter 5 A First-Hand Perspective from Kosovo by Bernard Kouchner 137 Introduction 137 Civil-Military Cooperation 138 Institution-Building in Kosovo 139 Conclusion 145 Chapter 6 Lessons Learned as Commander KFOR in Kosovo by Klaus Reinhardt 147 Introduction 147 Military Command and Politics 147 KFOR’s Assignment 150 Lessons from the Operation 152 Conclusion 154 Chapter 7 Humanitarian Aspects of International Peace Support Operations: The Experience of the International Committee of the Red Cross by Jakob Kellenberger 157 Introduction 157 The Nature of Conflict in the Post-Cold War Era 158 The International Community’s Response 159 The Balkan Wars and Conflict Management 160 The Militarization of Aid 164 The Development of Peace Support Operations and Lessons Learned by the ICRC 167 Conclusion 170 Chapter 8 International Stabilization and Peace Support: What the European Union Can Contribute by Leonidas A. Evangelidis 173 Introduction 173 The EU’s Future Role in International Crisis Management 173 The Need for Close International Cooperation in Peace-Building 176 NATO and the EU: an Essential Partnership 178 Conclusion 179 Chapter 9 Peace Support Operations in the Balkans: The NATO Experience by James Appathurai 181 Introduction 181 Bosnia-Herzegovina: Forcing NATO Out of Its Shell 183 Kosovo: Learning the Lessons of Bosnia-Herzegovina 190 Kosovo and NATO’s Internal Transformation 192 Conclusion 196 PART III NATIONAL VIEWS: THE EXPERIENCES OF NEUTRAL COUNTRIES WITH PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS 197 Chapter 10 Recent Experience with Peace Support Operations: Austria’s View by Günther Greindl 199 Introduction 199 Austrian Participation in Peace Support Operations 199 A New Environment for Peacekeeping 201 Some Specific Lessons Learned in Recent Operations 206 Conclusion 210 Chapter 11 Experience as a Newcomer: Switzerland’s Contribution to International Peace Support Operations by Bruno Lezzi 213 Introduction 213 Switzerland’s Involvement in International Peace Efforts 214 The Partial Revision of the Swiss Military Law: Armed Participation in Peace Support Operations 218 Conclusion 221 Chapter 12 Training Soldiers for Peace Support Operations: New Training Requirements and Switzerland’s Approach by Bruno Rösli 223 Introduction 223 Traditional Military Skills 224 Peace Support Operations Requirements 225 The Swiss Approach 227 Conclusion 230 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 233 About the Authors 245 Agenda of the Conference 249 Abbreviations AOS Area of Separation ARF ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BiH Bosnia and Herzegovina CIS Commonwealth of Independent States CIMIC Civil-military cooperation COMKFOR Commander KFOR CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe C3I Command, control, communications and intelligence DCI Defense Capabilities Initiative (NATO) DHA Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UN) DPA Department of Political Affairs (UN) DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN) DRC Democratic Republic of Congo EAPC Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council ECHO European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid Office ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ESDI European Security and Defense Identity ESDP European Security and Defense Policy EU European Union 11 FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FRY Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro) FYROM Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (now Macedonia) GDP Gross domestic product HQ Headquarters IAC Interim Administrative Council (Kosovo) ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross ICFY International Conference on Former Yugoslavia IFOR Implementation Force (NATO) IHL International Humanitarian Law IISS International Institute for Strategic Studies IMTF Integrated Mission Task Forces KFOR Kosovo Force KLA Kosovo Liberation Army KTC Kosovo Transitional Council MCDU Military-Civil Disaster Unit MINUGUA UN Verification Mission in Guatemala MSF Médecins sans Frontières MTA Military technical agreement NACC North Atlantic Cooperation Council NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NBC Nuclear, biological, chemical NCO Non commissioned officers 12 NGO Non-governmental organization OAS Organization of American States OAU Organization of African Unity OCHA UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OHR Office of the High Representative ONUC UN Operation in the Congo ONUMOZ UN Operation in Mozambique ONUSAL UN Observer Mission in El Salvador ONUVEN UN Observer Mission for the Verification of the Electoral Process in Nicaragua OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe PfP Partnership for Peace PR Public relations PSO Peace Support Operations PTSD Post-traumatic stress disorder ROE Rules of engagement SADC Southern African Development Community SACEUR Supreme Allied Commander Europe SG/HR Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union/High Representative Common Foreign and Security Policy SFOR Stabilization Force (NATO) SHAPE Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe SWISSCOY Swiss Company (Kosovo) TCN Troop Contributing Nations 13 UCPMB Liberation Army of Presheva, Medvegja, and Bujanoc UCK Ushtrisë çlirimtare të Kosovës (Kosovo Liberation Army) UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNAMET UN Mission in East Timor UNAMSIL UN Mission in Sierra Leone UNDP UN Development Programme UNEF UN Emergency Force UNHCR UN High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF UN Children’s Fund UNMEE UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea UNMIH UN Mission in Haiti UNMIK UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo UNPREDEP UN Preventive Deployment Force (Macedonia) UNPROFOR UN Protection Force (Former Yugoslavia) UNSC UN Security Council UNSCR UN Security Council Resolution UNSF UN Security Force UNSG UN Secretary-General UNTAC UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia UNTAES UN Transitional Authority in Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium UNTAET UN Transitional Administration in East Timor UNTAG UN Transition Assistance Group (Namibia) 14 UNTEA UN Temporary Executive Authority (West New Guinea) US United States WEU Western European Union WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization 15 Preface The end of the Cold War changed the peacekeeping environment in fundamental ways, and it also affected the international community’s way of reacting to crises. It highlighted the necessity for managing new types of conflicts in alternative ways. Major players like the UN, EU and NATO were forced to adapt to new circumstances and to recon- sider their roles in conflict settlement. Moreover, cooperation between the various international actors has been transformed by their experi- ence with peace support operations in the 1990s. Debates about “first”, “second” and “third” generations of peacekeeping, about “robust” or “wider” peacekeeping, and about the latest concept of peace support operations by NATO mirror the difficulties in conceptualizing and in adapting to the new situation. This book addresses the experience made with international peace support after the end of the Cold War, particularly during the difficult years of the war in the Balkans, and it discusses the lessons to be drawn in order to improve future operations. International experts analyze the major changes in peace support operations, and they discuss the various problems of cooperation between international organizations and between civilians and the military. The book presents viewpoints of academics and practitioners with actual experience in the field. The contributions were presented at a conference on Peace Support Operations – Lessons Learned and Future Perspectives, organized in February 2001 by the Center for International Studies (CIS) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich. Over 270 par- ticipants from 28 countries took part, representing scholars and policy- makers with different types of experience in peace support operations.