ECOLOGICAL, BEHAVIOURAL AND BIOCHEMICAL TRAITS OF AFRICAN MELIPONINE BEE SPECIES (Apidae:Meliponini) IN A BIODIVERSE HOTSPOT OF KENYA. BY BRIDGET OBHAGIAGIE AITO-BOBADOYE. B.Tech. (LAUTECH), M.Sc. (UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN) NIGERIA. Reg. No.: I80/95388/2014 A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR EXAMINATION IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENTOMOLOGY. SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI NOVEMBER, 2017. i DECLARATION Candidate This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university or any other award. Name……………………………………………………………………………. Signature……………………………….. Date………………………………. Supervisors We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision and the thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval. Prof. Paul N. Ndegwa School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi. Signature……………………………. Date………………………………… Prof. Lucy W. Irungu School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi. Signature……………………………. Date………………………………… Prof. Baldwyn Torto Behavioral and Chemical Ecology Department (BCED), International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), P. O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya Signature …………………………… Date ………………………………….. Dr. Ayuka T. Fombong Behavioral and Chemical Ecology Department (BCED), International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), P. O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya Signature …………………………… Date …………………………………… ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to Almighty God, my ever present help, my constantly supportive parents (Mr. Sunday and Mrs. Cecilia Aitokhuehi) for their continous prayers, help and huge encouragement, my husband (Ayodotun Bobadoye), and finally my blessed child (Oluwasindara Ofure Osemobor Benedicta Bobadoye). iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am extremely grateful to my supervisors, Professors Lucy Irungu, Paul Ndegwa, Baldwyn Torto and Dr. Ayuka Fombong for their unflinching expertise, continuous guidance, encouragement and patience during the whole study period, and also for the precious and immense time dedicated to the review of this thesis. I am also grateful to Taita bee keepers association for their support, farmers of Taita hills who cooperated with me during the sampling and surveying periods and experiments. This thesis would not have been made possible without the financial support from OWSD- TWAS (Organization of women in science in the developing world) who provided me with a scholarship. Special thanks to all my colleagues, especially David Cham, Khalid Abbes, Sansao Pedro, Frank Njoumatchoua, Sheila Agha and Soul Mdingegoi, for making my stay at International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) worthwhile. Finally, words cannot adequately express my gratitude to my wonderful parents, for their constant prayers, support and encouragement that meant so much to me. May you live long to enjoy the fruits of all your labor in my life. I would like to specially thank my husband, Ayodotun Bobadoye, God bless you as you have also been conferred your doctoral degree. And to my minie me “Oluwasindara Ofure Osemobor Benedicta Bobadoye” who is my icing on this cake “I love you”. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ......................................................................... xv ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xvi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1 1.1 General Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem statement ......................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 4 1.3.1 Specific objectives ..................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Justification ................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 6 2.1 Classification of meliponine bees ................................................................................. 6 2.1.1 Geographical distribution and diversity of African meliponine bee species ...... 6 2.1.2 Meliponine bees and their nesting biology ......................................................... 7 2.1.3 Colony cycle and life history of meliponine bees .............................................. 9 2.2 Pollination and its importance as an ecosystem service ............................................. 10 2.2.1 Meliponine bees as alternative pollinators ....................................................... 10 2.2.3 Potential pests of African meliponine bee species ........................................... 12 2.2.4 Foraged resources of meliponine bees .............................................................. 12 2.2.5 Land use change: Pollinator survival in unpredictable ecosystems. ................ 13 2.3 Communication systems in social insects ................................................................... 15 2.3.1 Nature of cues and signals used by social insects ............................................ 17 2.4 Biodiversity of the Eastern Arc Mountains ................................................................ 24 2.4.1 Taita Hills ......................................................................................................... 24 v CHAPTER THREE: LAND-USE CHANGES ALTER MELIPONINE BEE’S (HYMENOPTERA: APIDAE) ASSEMBLAGES IN AN AFRO-MONTANE BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT............................................................................................ 26 3.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 26 3.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 26 3.3 Materials and methods ................................................................................................ 29 3.3.1 Study area and sampling method ...................................................................... 29 3.3.2 Sampling procedure .......................................................................................... 32 3.3.3 Statistical analysis............................................................................................. 35 3.4 Results ......................................................................................................................... 36 3.4.1 Meliponine bee species and native names ........................................................ 36 3.4.2 Overall species richness of Meliponine bees. .......................................................... 37 3.4.3 Species richness and diversity of meliponine bees ........................................... 40 3.4.4 Sequence Analysis ............................................................................................ 44 3.5 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 46 3.5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 48 CHAPTER FOUR: FLORAL RESOURCES SUSTAINING AFRICAN MELIPONINE BEE SPECIES (APIDAE: MELIPONINI) IN A FRAGILE HABITAT OF KENYA. ... 49 4.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 49 4.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 49 4.3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................ 51 4.3.1 Study sites ................................................................................................................ 51 4.3.1.1 Lowlands ............................................................................................................... 52 4.3.1.2 Highlands .............................................................................................................. 53 4.3.2 Sampling Procedure ................................................................................................. 53 4.3.2.1 Flowering Phenology and Floral Resources ......................................................... 53 4.3.2.2 Meliponine bee Monitoring and Visitation Rates ................................................. 54 4.3.3 Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................