Antisemitism: A Study Of Orthodox Jewish Communities In North London Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of West London by Maya Flax University of West London Supervisors: Professor Joelle Fanghanel, Professor Karim Murji DECEMBER 2018 1 Abstract Records of antisemitic incidents in the UK have reached an all-time high in the last 3-5 years. I have used antisemitism to mean in this study: any form of hostility or prejudice towards Jews based on their identity. The main objective of this study is to explore a section of the Jewish community, which has been marginalised in research on antisemitism: The Orthodox Jewish community. Being most visible, as identifiable Jews, within the Jewish community, they are also the ones most frequently targeted. Drawing on qualitative data resulting from 28 interviews with Orthodox Jewish individuals as well as five focus groups with key stakeholder, this thesis explored the lived experienced of antisemitism within the Orthodox Jewish community. It investigated the types of antisemitic incidents, the impacts and meaning which participants attached to these incidents, the perceptions of antisemitism, the coping mechanisms which were adopted in order to respond to the climate of antisemitism and the perceptions of agencies which respond to antisemitism. The thesis generated four main findings. First, the pervasive nature of antisemitism and its prevalence within the lives of Orthodox Jews. Second, the awareness that there is a resurgence of antisemitism and that there has been a shift in its manifestation, making it more institutionalised and therefore powerful. Third, that despite the high prevalence rate of incidents among the community, most respondents chose to normalise and accept the victimisation. My thesis proposes that the reasons respondents were able to show agency and to accept the incidents is due to their strong religious identity and their close 2 community ties. Finally, this study offers recommendations to support the Orthodox Jewish community; to address in a practical way some remediable issues uncovered by this study. 3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank both my supervisors Professor Joelle Fanghanel and Professor Karim Murji for their meticulous feedback and constant support. I am indebted to Professor Joelle Fanghanel, that despite her own tight schedule, for pushing me to perform to the best of my abilities and for ensuring that all the i’s have been dotted and the t’s crossed. I am also thankful to Maria Pennells, the senior administrative officer of the graduate school who regularly ‘mothers’ all of the graduates. She has given me moral support and has encouraged me to persevere throughout the process. I look forward to reading your PhD one day, on the experiences of PhD students. I am thankful to my constantly supportive parents who have enshrined in me a strong work ethics and have cheered me along from across the ocean. I am indebted to my older loyal brother, without whom this journey would not have been possible. I am particularly thankful to my husband Richard, who has been by my side throughout this process. Deciding to embark on this journey whilst raising our 5 beautiful children, was not going to be a walk-in-the-park and it was only made possible because of him. When the pressures of work, family life and completing this degree got on top of me, he did whatever he could to lift the load off. Richi, this thesis should have both of our names on it. 4 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 9 1.1 Orthodox Jews: prime targets 12 1.2 The purpose and aims of this research 14 1.3 Who is the Orthodox Jewish community? 16 1.4 Community-based organisations 18 1.5 The research questions 23 1.6 Public climate of antisemitism 24 1.7 Research paradigm 32 1.8 Theoretical framework 35 1.9 Conclusion 42 Outline of chapters 44 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 47 2.1 Overview of hate crime and antisemitism 48 2.2 The extent of hate crime and antisemitism 65 2.3 Perceptions of antisemitism in the literature 78 2.4 Impact of hate crime 85 2.5 Coping mechanisms 96 2.6 The concept of victim 102 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 109 3.1 A qualitative research framework 109 3.2 The sample 111 3.3 Research ethics 115 3.4 Access to respondents 116 3.5 Research design 120 5 3.6 Gathering and analysing data 126 3.7 Being an insider 129 3.8 Conclusion 133 Research questions explained 134 CHAPTER 4 TYPES OF ANTISEMITIC INCIDENTS and IMMEDIATE RESPONSE 135 4.1 Introduction 132 4.2 Categories of antisemitism 137 Category 1 - Physical attacks and assaults 142 Category 2 - Verbal assault / hostility 147 Category 3 - Discrimination 155 Category 4 - Prejudicial attitudes / stereotyping 163 Category 5 - Distribution of material 167 4.3 Vicarious victimisation 170 4.4 Immediate response to the incident 175 4.5 Conclusion 188 CHAPTER 5 PERCEPTIONS OF ANTISEMITISM 190 5.1 Introduction 190 5.2 The scale and significance of antisemitism 191 5.3 Contributory factors to respondents’ perceptions 220 5.4 Conclusion 244 CHAPTER 6 COPING MECHANISMS 246 6.1 Introduction 246 6.2 Normalisation 251 6.2a Religious coping 254 6.2b Close community ties 259 6.3 Preventative measures 261 6.3.1 Long-term measures 262 6.3.2 Short-term measures 263 6.4 Victimhood 280 6 6.5 Conclusion 284 CHAPTER 7 UNDER REPORTING and PERCEPTIONS OF AGENCIES 285 7.1 Introduction 285 7.2 The police 286 7.3 Community Security Trust 301 7.4 Shomrim 306 7.5 Conclusion 314 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 316 8.1 Introduction 316 8.2 Brief Overview of analysis 318 8.3 Similarities with previous research 322 8.4 Differences with previous research and 323 original contribution 8.4.1 Normalisation 323 8.4.2 Strong religious background and social cohesion 328 8.5 Suggested recommendations 329 8.5.1 Knowledge, data and resource sharing 331 8.5.2 Orthodox Jewish community liaison officer 334 8.5.3 Encourage reporting 335 8.6 Conclusion 337 List of Tables Table 1 Recorded antisemitic hate crime data in UK 72 Table 2 Common coping mechanisms and sources 97 Table 3 Interview respondents’ characteristics 122 Table 4 Interview respondents’ profiles 123 Table 5 Focus group participants’ profiles 126 Table 6 Research questions explained 134 List of Figures Figure 1 CST’s Typology of Antisemitic Incidents 75 List of Diagrams Diagram 1 Typology of Antisemitic Incidents 141 Diagram 2 Degrees of Insecurity 193 7 Diagram 3 Coping Mechanisms 250 Diagram 4 Suggested recommendations 331 List of Appendices Appendix 1 Participant recruitement letter 339 Appendix 2. Consent form for interviewees and participant 341 information sheet Appendix 3. Example of focus group consent form 344 Appendix 4. Semi-structured interview questions 346 Appendix 5. Example of focus group schedule of questions 349 Appendix 6. Terminology 351 Appendix 7. Vignettes of participants 352 Appendix 8. List of abbreviations 363 References 364 Table of Cases 420 8 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This thesis will investigate the hate crime of antisemitism against the Orthodox Jewish community in London. The Association of Chief Police Officers recently updated the definition of hate crime to be: ‘any criminal offence which is perceived by the victim or any other person as being motivated by hostility or prejudice’ (College of Policing, 2014, p.3). Antisemitism, which is a religious or ethical intolerance, is one form of hate crime, and is defined by the International Holocaust of Remembrance Alliance as: A certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred towards Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities (IHRA, 2016). According to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), hate crime has been on the rise (Home Office, 2017) and antisemitism is no exception. The resurgence of antisemitism within the UK is documented among police and communal records (Home Office, 2016; Community Security Trust, 2017). These records show the prevalence of antisemitic victimisation among the Orthodox Jewish community and yet the everyday experiences of the Orthodox Jewish community appear marginalised in academic literature. This thesis aims to include voices of Orthodox Jewish individuals in the developing literature (see literature review chapter). The introductory chapter will first reveal what is being published in the British media about antisemitism and focus on the reasons and the importance of conducting this research. The chapter will then discuss who the Orthodox Jewish community is within London and their established infrastructures. After identifying gaps in the literature, the third part of this chapter will lay out the 9 research questions. The fourth section will seek to identity the spheres where antisemitism is most noticeable. Finally, this chapter will address the theoretical frameworks that underpin this thesis. Reports of anti-Jewish sentiment and concerns of rising antisemitism dominated the headlines at the time of this research (2015-2018). ‘Attacks against Jewish people in the UK have reached ’unprecedented’ levels, new figures show’ (Morgan, 2017). ‘One in three British Jews consider leaving the UK fearing hate crime, poll finds (Nelson, 2017). A ‘quarter of Jewish students in the UK fear antisemitic attacks on campus’ (Kentish, 2017). The Chief Rabbi said in The Telegraph that ‘Labour has a “severe” problem with anti-semitism’ (Dominiczak, 2016). The Community Security Trust (CST), a charitable organisation that represents and advises the Jewish community on matters of antisemitism, security, and terrorism, has recorded the highest level of reported antisemitic crimes since statistics were first assembled 33 years ago. The most recent Antisemitic Incidents Report (CST, 2017) showed similar trends, with an unprecedented number of antisemitic incidents rising to 1382 incidents, a 3% increase from the previous year (CST, 2017).