Science on the Edge arctic and antarctic discoveries he polar regions provide unique natural laboratories for the study of Tcomplex scientific questions, ranging from human origins in the New World to the expansion of the universe. People have studied the polar regions for centuries. The extreme cold and stark beauty of the Arctic and Antarctic capture the imaginations of explorers, naturalists, and armchair travelers. In the latter half of the twentieth century, NSF-funded scientists discovered that the Arctic and the Antarctic have much to teach us about our Earth and its atmosphere, oceans, and climate. For example, cores drilled from the great ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica tell a story of global climate changes throughout history. During NSF’s lifetime, the extreme environments of the Arctic and Antarctic have become learning environments. During the First Polar Year (1882–83), scien- tists and explorers journeyed to the icy margins of the Earth to collect data on weather patterns, the Earth’s magnetic force, and other polar phe- nomena that affected navigation and shipping in A Surprising Abundance of Life the era of expanding commerce and industrial Both the Arctic and Antarctic seem beyond life: development. In all, the First Polar Year inspired icy, treeless, hostile places. Yet these polar regions fifteen expeditions (twelve to the Arctic and three host a surprising abundance of life, ranging from to the Antarctic) by eleven nations. Along the way, the microbial to the awe-inspiring, from bacteria researchers established twelve research stations. to bowhead whales. By the Second Polar Year (1932–33), new fields The United States has supported research Important differences mark North and South. of science had evolved, such as ionospheric at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole The North Pole lies in the middle of an ocean physics, which peers into the outer layer of Earth’s Station continuously since 1956. The surrounded by land, while the South Pole rises atmosphere. Scientists at the time turned to the current station, completed in 1975, is from the center of a continent surrounded by an polar regions to study the aurora phenomena— being redeveloped to meet the changing ocean. In the Arctic, human habitation stretches known in the Northern Hemisphere as the needs of the U.S. science community. back for thousands of years. The Inuit and other “northern lights”—and their relation to magnetic Today’s research at the South Pole indigenous peoples in the Arctic continue to carry variations, cosmic radiation, and radio wave dis- includes astronomy, astrophysics, and out age-old traditions while adopting modern tech- turbances. How did the sun, the atmosphere, and nology for subsistence hunting and fishing. The the Earth’s interior interact at the poles? Could atmospheric monitoring—e.g. ozone Antarctic has no “native” human populations but scientists learn how to anticipate the magnetic depletion and greenhouse gas concen- hosts a visiting population of scientists and sup- storms that sometimes disrupt radio-based com- trations. To the left in the picture is the port personnel every year. Human migration and munications? Data collected during the Second geodesic dome that currently houses methods of interacting with the environment form Polar Year contributed to new meteorological the main station buildings. On the right, important research topics for NSF-supported social maps for the Northern Hemisphere and verified a ski-equipped Hercules airplane waits scientists who work in the Arctic, while the human the effects of magnetic storms on radio waves. on the South Pole skiway. scientists in the Antarctic focus on the effects of isolated and confined environments. The poles were still poorly understood places when scientists the world over organized a special effort called the International Geophysical Year (IGY) to study the Earth and Sun on an unprece- dented scale. The IGY, which ran from July 1957 to December 1958, was modeled on two previous International Polar Years and brought NSF firmly into the realm of polar science. Science on the Edge — 135 Still, scientists lacked a complete picture of how ice, atmosphere, land, and oceans worked together at the poles as a system of cause and effect. Technological advancements in rockets, satel- Near Antarctica’s coast lie the McMurdo lites, and instrumentation during the 1940s and 1950s allowed more and better measurements in Dry Valleys, a long-term ecological the remote Arctic and Antarctic. By the time of the citizens became involved in scientific observations. research site funded by the NSF. The 1957–58 IGY, researchers were free to explore People in the far north and the far south recorded bizarre rock formation shown here, the ocean floor as well as the upper atmosphere: their own aurora sightings and temperature read- called a "ventifact," was sculpted by they could use nuclear-powered submarines to ings, information that was funneled to scientists. wind-blown particles of ice and stone. plunge under the ice cap and discover new ocean Sixty-seven countries participated in the IGY, Ventifacts are common to dry, windy ridges, and launch rocket-powered satellites including the United States and the Soviet Union. places like Antarctica, the high deserts, to make remote geophysical measurements. For Despite Cold War tensions between east and west, and Mars. In fact, the Dry Valleys served the first time, the polar regions became year- the world was engaged in cooperative, coordinated as practice terrain prior to NASA’s launch round research platforms available for widespread science at the poles and in other parts of the world. of the Viking probe to Mars. international cooperation. Furthermore, everyday The IGY set the stage for polar research at NSF in two ways. First, scientists came to think of the poles as natural laboratories in which to capture and integrate diverse data about “the heavens and the earth.” Second, polar research became a cooperative international undertaking. Following the IGY, the twelve countries that had established some sixty research stations in Antarctica concluded a treaty to use Antarctica for peaceful purposes only, to freely exchange scientific information, to prohibit nuclear explosions and disposal of radio- active wastes, and to maintain free access to any area on the continent. By 1999, the Antarctic Treaty had forty-four parties, representing two-thirds of the world’s human population; other agreements were made, too, including a protocol for improved environmental protection of Antarctica. The 1990s also saw cooperation blossom up north. In 1996, the eight Arctic nation-states estab- lished the Arctic Council—the result of a process of negotiations aimed at protecting the Arctic environment while also allowing for vital research. 136 — National Science Foundation Ice Cores Hold Earth’s Climate As ice forms, gasses and other materi- a glaciologist from the University of als are trapped in the layers that build New Hampshire and a thirty-year veter- up over time. This makes the polar an of NSF-funded research in Antarctica. regions time machines. With more than “Some [of the pattern changes] actual- 500,000 years of snow and ice accu- ly start in less than two years.” While mulation, the ice sheets are ideal places he finds these dramatic shifts surpris- for paleoclimatologists to set up their ing, he also notes that Antarctic cores tubular drills and extract cores—long are in sync with the climate data found cylinders of sediment and rock—in order in the ice cores from Greenland. to read the history captured therein. Mayewski and his colleagues learn Working in the center of Antarctica’s about these changes by examining the ice sheet, near the Russian research chemical indicators, such as sea salt, base of Vostok, a group of researchers within the extracted ice cores. High from the United States, Russia, and sea salt levels signal increased stormi- France have extracted the world’s ness and stronger winds. In addition, deepest core. As a result, the scien- measurements of oxygen isotopes in tists have differentiated more than the ice reveal cooling during periods four ice ages, or about 400,000 years of increased sea salt. Other tests of history. probe for indicators of wind patterns, What researchers are discovering volcanic activity, and sea level. is that Earth’s climate is not stable, However, the researchers still don’t and never has been. Ice ages are punc- know what caused the rapid climate pat- tuated by interglacial periods of relative tern changes evidenced in the ice cores. warmth, such as the one marking the “We need to understand how these close of the twentieth century. The changes work in order to make a better interglacial periods have been marked assessment of natural climatic change,” by sudden shifts in temperature, wind Mayewski says, “and a better assess- patterns, and sea levels. ment of the human impact on the “Some of these rapid changes occur future climate.” in two decades,” says Paul Mayewski, the southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. In 1997, NSF- funded researchers excavated a cave on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, and found parts of a human jaw and pelvis dating to between 9,200 and 9,800 years ago, the oldest human bones ever found in Alaska. Isotope analysis of the bones showed that the person had subsisted on a marine diet. These first peoples would have had plenty of fish and other marine resources to eat as they moved in skin-covered boats along the Pacific Coast south to Peru and Chile during the last ice age. While the story of the first people to arrive in North America continues to unfold, another side of the story tells of the close collaboration between Inupiat whalers wait by the sea ice Human Migration and Local Knowledge scientists and contemporary indigenous commu- edge near Barrow, Alaska.