Ḵ̓A̱NGEX̱TOLA SEWN-ON-TOP: KWAK’WALA REVITALIZATION AND BEING INDIGENOUS by PATRICIA CHRISTINE ROSBOROUGH B.A., University of Victoria, 1993 M.A., Bastyr University, 1995 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Educational Leadership and Policy) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) August 2012 © Patricia Christine Rosborough, 2012 ABSTRACT Kwak’wala, the language of the Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw, like the languages of all Indigenous peoples of British Columbia, is considered endangered. Documentation and research on Kwak’wala began more than a century ago, and efforts to revitalize Kwak’wala have been under way for more than three decades. For Indigenous peoples in colonizing societies, language revitalization is a complex endeavour. Within the fields of language revitalization and Indigenous studies, the practices and policies of colonization have been identified as key factors in Indigenous language decline. This study deepens the understanding of the supports for and barriers to Kwak’wala revitalization. Emphasizing Indigenization as a key aspect of decolonization, the study explored the relationship between Kwak’wala learning and being Indigenous. The study was conducted through a Ḵ̓a̱ngex̱tola framework, an Indigenous methodology based on the metaphor of creating a button blanket, the ceremonial regalia of the Kwaka̱ka̱’wakw. The research has built understanding through the author’s experience as a Kwak’wala learner and the use of various approaches to language learning, including two years with the Master-Apprentice approach. The research employs the researcher’s journals and personal stories, as well as interviews with six individuals who are engaged in Kwak’wala revitalization. The study’s conclusion is that the complexity of the task of Kwak’wala revitalization requires a multifaceted approach by applying Indigenous principles to teaching and learning and must take into account the impacts of colonization. Further, it is important to sustain the spirit of the language by maintaining the ii literal and symbolic meanings and constructs of Kwak’wala that are important in the transmission and maintenance of Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw culture. In addition, encouragement, safe environments and relationships for language work through explicit agreements and commitment, and clear language-acquisitions goals are identified as important supports for Kwak’wala learning and speaking. This research has led to an understanding of what supports the learning and speaking of Kwak’wala, which will assist others in their own language learning and the development of Indigenizing language revitalization programs. iii PREFACE University of British Columbia Behavioural Research Ethics Board Certificate Number H07-03001 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. ii PREFACE ................................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... ix DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE: RELATIONSHIPS AND INTENTIONS: INTRODUCTION ......................... 1 Aim .................................................................................................................. 1 Terminology ..................................................................................................... 3 Red Alert: The State of Indigenous Languages .................................................. 5 Languages Are a Crucial Component of Identity ......................................... 6 The Study of Languages Informs Important Scientific Research .................. 7 Linguistic Diversity Supports Biodiversity ................................................... 7 Language Plays an Important Role in Decolonization .................................. 9 Kwak’wala: The Situation Today ..................................................................... 11 My Location and Approach to Research .......................................................... 14 Quilt Square ............................................................................................. 15 Situating Kwak’wala Research and Revitalization Efforts ................................. 23 Research Statement and Questions ................................................................. 31 CHAPTER TWO: CREATING THE SPACE AND GATHERING THE TOOLS: METHODOLOGY AND METHOD ....................................................................................................... 34 Ḵ̓a̱ngex̱tola—Sewn on Top .............................................................................. 34 Research in the Academy ............................................................................... 35 Decolonization Theory ................................................................................... 37 The Role of Story in Research ......................................................................... 39 My Grandmothers’ Buttons ............................................................................. 44 Ḵ̓a̱ngex̱tola as Methodology ........................................................................... 48 Ḵ̓a̱ngax̱tawe’gila̱nu’xw: We (But Not You) Are Making Button Blankets ............ 49 Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw Button Blankets .................................................................... 52 Ḵ̓a̱ngex̱tola Structures and the Dissertation Chapters ..................................... 55 Relationships and Intentions: Introduction ............................................... 56 v Creating the Space and Gathering the Tools: Methodology and Method .... 58 Making a Blank: Language Revitalization Practice ..................................... 60 Applying the Crest: Language and Indigeneity .......................................... 61 The Border Design: Making it My Own ...................................................... 62 Adding the Lifeline: Conclusion ................................................................ 63 Methods ......................................................................................................... 63 Participants in the Journey .............................................................................. 66 Principles, Protocols, and Permissions ............................................................ 72 CHAPTER THREE: MAKING A BLANK: LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION AND PRACTICE .. 78 Kwak’wala Decline and the Seeds of Regeneration .......................................... 79 Hidden ..................................................................................................... 81 Who’s Laughing Now? .................................................................................... 84 Kwak’wala in the Archive ................................................................................ 92 Hunt and Boas ......................................................................................... 92 Changing Kwak’wala? ..................................................................................... 97 Kwak’wala in My Lifetime ............................................................................... 99 Colours, Numbers, and Body Parts ......................................................... 107 I’ve Been to London to Look at the Queen .............................................. 109 My Early Attempts to Learn Kwak’wala .......................................................... 113 CHAPTER FOUR: APPLYING THE CREST: LANGUAGE AND INDIGENEITY ................. 117 Language, Identity, and Indigeneity .............................................................. 117 Real Indian ............................................................................................. 118 Heritage ................................................................................................. 121 A̱ngwaxtła̱s: Who is On Your Head? The Link Between Kwak’wala and Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw Ways .................................................................................. 125 Indigenous Constructs of Education ............................................................. 134 Hasayesida Kwak’wala: The Spirit of Kwak’wala ............................................ 139 Linguistics and the Spirit of Kwak’wala ......................................................... 148 Kwak’wala Appreciation ............................................................................... 151 Lagwił .................................................................................................... 153 Acknowledging and Trusting What we Know ................................................. 156 -gila ...................................................................................................... 158 Laughter Revisited ................................................................................. 161 Where Can I Get Some Motherese? ................................................................ 162 Kwak’wala’gila ....................................................................................... 163 A̱’yu’sa̱la’ma̱n: