UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY THE INVENTION OF GOOD GAMES: UNDERSTANDING LEARNING DESIGN IN COMMERCIAL VIDEO GAMES by KATRIN BECKER A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE DIVISION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CALGARY, ALBERTA JANUARY 2008 © KATRIN BECKER 2008 ii Abstract This work sought to help inform the design of educational digital games by the studying the design of successful commercial videogames. The main thesis question was: How does a commercially and critically successful modern video game support the learning that players must accomplish in order to succeed in the game (i.e. get to the end or win)? This work takes a two-pronged approach to supporting the main argument, which is that the reason we can learn about designing educational games by studying commercial games is that people already learn from games and the best ones are already quite effective at teaching players what they need to learn in order to succeed in the game. The first part of the research establishes a foundation for the argument, namely that accepted pedagogy can be found in existing commercial games. The second part of the work proposes new methods for analysing games that can uncover mechanisms used to support learning in games which can be emplyed even if those games were not originally designed as educational objects. In order to support the claim that ‘good’ commercial videogames already embody elements of sound pedagogy an explicit connection is made between game design and formally accepted theory and models in teaching and learning. During this phase of the work a significant concern was raised regarding the classification of games as ‘good’, so a new methodology using Borda Counts was devised and tested that combines various disjoint subjective reviews and rankings from disparate sources in non-trivial manner that accounts for relative standings. Complementary to that was a meta-analysis of the criteria used to select games chosen as subjects of study as reported by researchers. Then, several games were chosen using this new ranking method and analysed using another new methodology that was designed for this work, called iii Instructional Ethology. This is a new methodology for game design deconstruction and analysis that would allows the extraction of information about mechanisms used to support learning. This methodology combines behavioural and structural analysis to examine how commercial games support learning by examining the game itself from the perspective of what the game does. Further, this methodology can be applied to the analysis of any software system and offers a new approach to studying any interactive software. The results of the present study offered new insights into how several highly successful commercial games support players while they learn what they must learn in order to succeed in those games. A new design model was proposed, known as the 'Magic Bullet' that allows designers to visualize the relative proportions of potential learning in a game to assess the potential of a design. iv Preface This thesis represents a confluence of my three main vocations: the ethology, computer science, and education. It is also theoretical Thesis, which according to MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers defends an interesting, important, and novel claim, i.e., a thesis (or set of related claims/theses) that the writer sets forth at the beginning of the Thesis and which argues for its validity in the body of the Thesis by means of supporting evidence, analysis and arguments. In one way or another I've been an ethologist as long as I can remember - spending countless hours as a child sitting ad watching the animals around me. When I began to study CS formally I would ever have dreamed that I would eventually re-introduce what I had learned (and continue to learn) about behaviour to the problem of software behaviour and specifically game behaviour. There are 2 chapters for the lit review because I need to pull together ideas from many different areas: culture; learning; design Notes on Format and Resources The Use of Pronouns There has been no attempt to balance the use of male and female pronouns in this work. As it was the author recording most of the in-game behaviours, the feminine pronoun is used most often. Games Cited in the Text Digital games cited in the text are referenced in a section separate from other the bibliography. There is as yet no formally recognized citation style for digital games, and since many digital games do not credit individual creators, they are listed by title rather than auteur. Where possible, links to the official game site is also provided. The Use of Screenshots Fair Use “Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, v teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include - (a) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes; (b) the nature of the copyrighted work; © the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and (d) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.” (Sony vs. Bleem, 2000) Screenshots credited to K.Becker At the time of this writing (July-Dec. 2007), copyright issues with respect to the use of screenshots taken from a personally owned computer or game console using a camera or some form of screen capture software have not been resolved. Many game companies and publishers routinely ignore requests for permission to use images in scholarly publications which could, in the spirit of 'Fair Use' be taken as tacit approval. Screenshots of Black & White Permission to use screenshots of the game Black & White from the website of Lionhead Studios (http://www.lionhead.com/) was sought on Dec 29, 2007 and received on Jan. 4 2008 via email. All uses are credited with the image. In some cases, the image has been cropped. A Note on the Links within the PDF Version of this Document This document was originally produced online and active links to internet sites have been preserved in the PDF version. Note that many links to other locations within the thesis connect to the online version, rather than the PDF document – particularly the citations. Every attempt was made to convert chapter, figure and table references so they link to locations within the document. My apologies for any I have missed. vi Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Michele Jacobsen for sticking with me through thick and thin and always offering encouragement when I needed it most. I would also like to thank my supervisory committee, Dr. Gail Kopp and Dr. John Mueller who provided alternate points of view and the occasional hard question. I am grateful to Dr. Richard Levy, who was kind enough to serve as an internal-external on both my candidacy and final oral. Not only has he proven he has ‘game’ but he has regularly surprised me with his depth of knowledge and insight. I also thank Dr. Carrie Heeter who agreed to be my external examiner without even having seen the size of this volume. I thank you all for reading and considering my work. Special mention also goes to Dr. Suzanne de Castelle who managed, in the brief time she acted as a co-supervisor, to help me focus my arguments and clarify my langiage. I offer a special thanks to my mom, Renate Bischof, who planted the notion in my head early on that I could accomplish anything I set my mind to do. Without that, I’m not sure I could have persevered. To my children, Adam, Bailey, and Max – thank you for your patience, for the space you gave me to think and to rant, and for the casual way you all simply asumed I would succeed. To my various and sundre critters – dogs, cats, and all the rest: thank you for making me laugh and for keeping me in touch with what real life is about – I knew that no matter what happened, I could always could always count on you to treat me with no more or less respect than I had earned. Finally, to Jim, my husband who is responsible for starting me on this journey. Your confidence in me never wavered, even when mine did. I could not have done this without yor help. There are no words big enough to express what your support has meant to me. vii Dedication For Klaus Becker, my Dad. viii Table of Contents Approval Page..................................................................................................................... ii Abstract.............................................................................................................................. iii Preface..................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements........................................................................................................... vii Dedication.......................................................................................................................