RHETORICALSTRATEGIES&ORGANIZATIONPATTERNS: common,acceptedEnglishmethodsandstructuresofexplaining,developingandorganizingideas BASICTERMS&CONCEPTS:definitions&explanations Rhetoric:Theartofwritingorspeakingeffectivelyinordertopersuadeanaudiencetoacceptanidea. RhetoricalStrategies/Modes/Techniques:Referstohowaparagraphand/oressayisorganizedandthemethodsusedto supportandexplainthemainideaorthesis;inotherwords,thepatternofdevelopmentusedtomakeapoint. Support:Referstotheuseofsufficientrelevantevidenceandexplanationinanessayorparagraphtosupportthethesis and/ortopicsentencespecifically,theinclusionofnecessaryinformationandexplanations,considerationofopposingviews andperspectives,interpretationandexplanationofevidence,andconnectingsupportdirectlytothemainpoint. Development:Referstotheprocessofaddinginformativeandillustrativeexamplesanddetailsandusinganappropriate patternoforganizationtosupportthemainideainaparagraphoressay. RHETORICALSTRATEGIES:definitions&explanations Illustration/Exemplification:Thisstrategyfocusesonusingspecificexamplesbrief,specificexamples(exemplification) and/orspecificexamplesthatareexplainedingreatdetail(illustrations)tosupportamainidea. Narration:Thisstrategyfocusesontheuseofstoriesaboutyou,peopleyouknow,peopleyouveheardabout,and/or hypothetical(imagined)thatarerelevanttoamainideaandexplain/demonstratethepoint(s)youwanttomake. Description:Thisstrategyisoftenusedwithoneormoreoftheprevioustwo.Usingdescriptionmeansfocusingontheuseof concrete,sensorydiction(words)todescribealocation,person,event,object,memory,etc.thatexplainsorilluminatesyour mainpointand/orspecificwordsratherthangeneralorabstractwords.Concrete,sensorywordsarewordsthatcanbe perceivedbyoursenses:sight,smell,taste,touch,andfeel(suchasred,bright,rotten,pleasant,bitter,sweet,rough,soft, etc.)andspecificwordsrefertowordsthatnameorrefertoprecisepeople,places,andevents(suchasLeahKeysStahl, Toronto,the2010FIFAworldchampionshipgameasopposedtogeneralwordslikegirlorwoman,bigcity,andsoccergame). Cause&Effect:Thesetermsrefertoreasons(causes)andresultsorconsequences(effects).Awritermayfocusonjust causes,justeffects,orbothbybothpresentingandevaluatingthecausesorreasonsforsomething;theeffects,results,or consequencesofsomething;orbothtoexplainamainidea. Compare&Contrast:Writersusethisstrategytoshowthesimilarities(comparison),differences(contrasting),orbothamong twoormorethingsbyfirstpresentingtheitemsofcomparisonandcriteriaorqualitiesbeingcompared/contrasted,and thendependingonthetypeoforganizationpatternchosenanalyzingand/orexplainingtheseinrelationtoamainidea. Process(Analysis):Thisstrategyfocusesongivinginstructionsorgivingthesequenceofstepsorstagesofsomekindof progressiveaction,concept,event,etc.Forexample,aprocesspapermayexplainordescribehowtodo,build,and/or accomplishsomething.Processparagraphsandessayspresenteachstep/stageseparatelyinorderfromfirsttolast. Sometimesanalysisofeachstep/stageisnecessary,whichiswhythisstrategyissometimescalledprocessanalysis. Classification:Thisstrategyisusedtodivide,group,orcategorizeinformationaccordingtospecifiedtopics,whicharethe explainedindetailonebyoneandorganizedinawaythatbestrepresentsandsupportsamainidea. (Extended)Definition:Writersuseextendeddefinitionwhentheuseandunderstandingofaspecificuseofaword,term,or conceptisthecentralidea(mainpoint)ofaparagraphoressay.Thisstrategyisusedtoprovidedetaileddefinitionsand meaningsthatareessentialtoamainidea,includingunfamiliarwords;abstractions;disciplineͲspecificvocabulary;wordsor termsawriterwishestoredefineinanew,original,uniqueway;anddistinguishingconnotativemeanings(popularlyusedand understood)fromdenotativemeanings(dictionarymeanings).Writersusethisstrategywhenthereadersunderstandingof themeaningofaparticularword,term,phrase,orexpressioniscrucialtothepurpose(mainpoint,thesis)ofthetextand/oris thewritersmainpointinthetext. Refutation:Theverbtorefutemeanstoargueagainst.Writersuserefutationforanumberofreasonstorecognize,explain, anddescribeoneormoreopposingarguments/positions/viewsonasubjectforthepurposeofexposingflawsandproving thattheirargumentorpositionisthestrongestandmostvalid.Presentingcounterargumentsalsohelpswriterstoimprove theirethosbydemonstratingtheirknowledgeandfairness. Argumentation:ThisissortofacatchͲallcategoryinwhichwritersmayuseoneormanyofthestrategiesdescribedaboveto helphim/herargueapositiononacontroversialissue.Controversyisthekeytousingthisargumentstrategywell: argumentationmeansthatyoustudyacontroversialtopicaboutwhichpeoplestronglydisagree(suchasabortion,legalizing gaymarriage,medicalmarijuana,etc.),pickaside(usuallyfororagainst),andthenpresentyourargument,hopefullyinaway thatismoreconvincingthanargumentsontheopposingsideoftheissue,NOTbysayingthattheothersideisallwrong,bad, orstupidbutinsteadpresentingwhyyourargumentisstrongerthantheopposition. PATTERNSOFORGANIZATION:commoncombinations&orderinEnglishcompositions Someofthesearespecifictocertainstrategieswhileothersmaybeusedtologicallyorderideasexpressedusingavarietyof strategiesdefinedabove.IhaveoutlinedthestrategyͲspecificorganizationpatternsfirst;followingthesearetheother organizationalpatterns,manyofwhichwillworkinavarietyofsituationsandwithseveraldifferentrhetoricalstrategies and/orcombinationofstrategies. STRATEGYͲSPECIFICORGANIZATIONPATTERNS Cause&EffectOrder:Thecausesorreasonsareusuallypresentedfirstandfollowedbytheresults,effects,orconsequences; however,awritermayfocusonjustcausesorjusteffects(notnecessarilyboth),inwhichcasehe/shemustuseanother patternoforganization. Compare&ContrastOrders:Compare&ContrastBLOCKSTYLE:Usedtoanalyzeorexplainsimilaritiesordifferencesby focusingonexplaintheitemsbeingcomparedorcontrasting,explainingthequalitiesorcriteriaofeachitemfullybefore movingontothenextitembeingcompared.Forexample,ifIwascomparingthepriceandqualityofDominosandCaesars pizzausingblockstyle,IwouldfirstdiscussthepriceandqualityofDominosinasingleparagraph,andthenIwoulddiscuss thepriceandqualityofCaesarsinthenextparagraph. Compare&ContrastPOINTͲBYͲPOINTSTYLE:Thismethodoforganizationfocusesofthecriteria(orpoints)ofcomparisonor contrastinsteadoftheitemsbeingcomparedorcontrasted.Usingthisstyleandtheexampleabove,Iwouldfirstexplainthe similaritiesordifferencesofthepriceofDominosvs.Caesarsinoneparagraph,andtheninasecond,newparagraph moveontodiscussthequalityofDominosvs.Caesars. ProcessOrder:Whenwritingaprocesspaper,weusesequentialorder,whichdetailsthesequenceofeventsoractions(steps orstagesofaprocess)toexplainorgiveinstructionsabouthowtodo,make,accomplish(etc.)somethinginparticularby beginningwiththefirststepandmovingonlogicallytothenextstepstowardthefinalstep. ClassificationOrder:Thisisalsosometimescalledtopicalorderbecauseclassifyingmeanstodivideideasupintodistinctand separatetopics(groupsorclasses)andthenexplaineachtopic,group,orclassindividuallyandindetail.Topicsmaybe orderedinanywaythatbestsuitsthewriterspurpose(seesomeoftheseorderingpatternsbelowunderOtherPatterns). DefinitionOrder:Whenusingdefinition,thekeyword,term,phrase,conceptorexpressionisusuallypresentedfirst,followed closelybyitsstandard,traditional,mostaccepted,and/ordictionarymeaning.Thisbasicdefinitionisthenfollowedbya detailedexplanationofthewritersalternative,new,original,unique,and/orconnotativedefinitionaswellasadiscussionof howandwhythisword,term,phrase,concept,orexpressionisacentralpartofthemainideaofthetext(thesis). RefutationOrder:Inthispattern,whichisalsocalledorderofopposingarguments,theopposingvieworcounterargument (oneormore)isusuallypresentedfirstandthenfollowedbyanequallyormoredetailedexplanationofthewritersmain idea/perspectiveinawaythathighlightstheflawsintheoppositionandattemptstoprovethetruth,probability,and/or reasonswhythewritersviewisstrongerandmorevalid. OTHERORGANIZATIONPATTERNSonesthatworkwithvariousstrategiesandcombinationsofstrategies OrderofImportanceorClimax:Usingthispattern,informationcanbeorganizedinoneoftwoways:(1)fromleasttomost importantidea(standard)or(2)frommosttoleastimportantidea(reverse). OrderofGeneralization&Example(alsocalledStatement&ClarificationOrder):Thispatternmaybeuseswithmostifnot allrhetoricalapproachesinwhichcombiningastatement/generalizationwithspecificdetailsassupportisthemostlogical. Therearetwostructurespossible:statement/generalizationfollowedbydetailedsupport,calledinductiveapproachor reasoning,orthereverseorderofdetailspresentedfirstandthenfollowedbyastatement/generalization,alsocalled deductiveapproachorreasoning. ChronologicalOrder:Astructurethatfocusesondescribingandexplainingtheorderoftimeinwhicheventsoccur,fromfirst tolastorbeginningtoend.Oftenusedwiththestrategiesofprocessordescription. SpatialOrder:Thistypeoforganizationisusuallyusedwithdescriptionornarrationbutmaybeusedwithotherstrategies. Spatialorderfocusesonorderofspacemovingfromonelocationinacontinuousandsequentialmanner,suchasa descriptionofaroomthatbeginsatthedoor,movesclockwisearoundtheroom(describingeverythingalongtheway),and endswhereitbegan. ProblemͲtoͲSolutionOrder:Firstaproblemispresentedinadetailedmanneralongwiththecausesthathaveleduptothe problem.Thisisfollowedbyadetailedexplanationofasolutiontotheproblem.Thisorganizationpatternisappropriatefor manystrategiessuchasrefutation,cause&effect,process,andclassification. OrderofFamiliarity:Ideasorpointsareorderedfromthemosttoleastorleasttomostfamiliaror,inotherwords,fromthe ideasorpointsmostwidelyknownorrecognizedbytheaudienceorinthereverseorder,fromtheleasttoknowwidely knownandrecognized. OrderofFrequency:Usedwhendealingwithhowoftensomethingoccurs,frommosttoleastfrequentlyoccurringorinthe reverseorder,fromtheleasttomostfrequentlyoccurring.