ORGANIC LIMITED: THE CORPORATE RISE AND SPECTACULAR CHANGE IN THE CANADIAN AND AMERICAN ORGANIC FOOD SECTORS By Lisa F. Clark THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Department ofPolitical Science © Lisa F. Clark 2007 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2007 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission ofthe author. APPROVAL Name: LISA F. CLARK Degree: DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Title ofThesis: ORGANIC LIMITED: THE CORPORATE RISE AND SPECTACULAR CHANGE IN THE CANADIAN AND AMERICAN ORGANIC FOOD SECTORS Examining Committee: Graduate Chair: Dr. Peggy Falkenheim Meyer Professor, Department of Political Science Dr. Marjorie Griffin Cohen, Senior Supervisor Professor, Department ofPolitical Science Dr. Stephen McBride, Supervisor Professor, Department ofPolitical Science Dr. Theodore Cohn, Supervisor Professor Emeritus, Department ofPolitical Science Dr. Pat Howard, Examiner Associate Professor, School ofCommunications Simon Fraser University Dr. Harriet Friedmann External Examiner Professor, Centre for International, Department of Sociology, University ofToronto nd Date Defended!Approved: ----:;;.;:.:=::..:....::=-=------>--=::...::...::....:....-October 22 , 2007 _ ii SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Declaration of Partial Copyright Licence The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. 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Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada Revised: Fall 2007 SIMON fRASER UNIVERSITY THINKING OF THE WORLO STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL The author, whose name appears on the title page of this work, has obtained, for the research described in this work, either: (a)Human research ethics approval from the Simon Fraser University Office of Research Ethics, or (b) Advance approval of the animal care protocol from the University Animal care Committee of Simon Fraser University; or has conducted the research (c) as a co-Investigator, in a research project approved in advance, or (d) as a member of a course approved in advance for minimal risk human research, by the Office of Research Ethics. A copy of the approval letter has been filed at the Theses Office of the University Library at the time of submission of this thesis or project. The original application for approval and letter of approval are filed with the relevant offices. Inquiries may be directed to those authorities. Bennett Library Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, canada Lastrevilion: Summer 2007 ABSTRACT The twentieth century saw the rise of industrialized food production in North America. In many cases, industrialized agriculture produces negative social and ecological effects. In response to the exploitive practices of industrialized agriculture, a number ofcounter movements emerged in the mid twentieth century, including the organic farming movement. The principles and practices oforganic agriculture presented an alternative form of food production, distribution and consumption that accounted for the social and ecological costs associated with feeding mass populations. Over the last twenty years, the organic food sector has seen phenomenal growth, that challenges organic's status as a counter-movement. Food safety issues have emerged the industrialized, globalized food system prompting concerned consumers to seek alternatives, contributing to organic food's rapid market expansion. As a result ofits remarkable market growth, new actors have entered the organic food sector and organic food is now part ofpolicies and regulatory frameworks ofmany OECD countries. Changes in both the structure ofthe organic food sector and the actors involved in it have challenged organic's standing as a counter-movement to the industrialized food system, and what it means for a food to be defined as 'organic'. This thesis examines the changing political economy ofthe organic food sector in Canada and the US over the past twenty years. It looks at the corporatization ofthe organic food sector and the insertion oforganic into various levels of governance, including national policy-making agendas and global trade agreements. As a result of these changes it is argued that organic has fundamentally moved away from its original status as a challenge to the status quo, and is now part ofthe global food regime that it once so adamantly opposed and sought to replace. By examining the pressures for changing the social and ecological principles ofthe organic movement, it is shown that it has effectively shifted from a social movement to an advocacy network. Keywords: organic food, corporatization, social movements, international trade Subject Headings: political economy, agriculture and food, social movements III DEDICATION To my parents, Patricia and Ralph Clark. Without their unwavering support and love, this would not have been possible. IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to extend my greatest thanks to my senior supervisor, Marjorie Griffin Cohen for the support, mentorship and feedback that she tirelessly gave to me throuqhout my doctoral program. I would also like to acknowledge my supervisory committee members Stephen McBride and Theodore Cohn for their always helpful and supportive comments on this thesis. To both of them, I am very grateful. Finally, I would like to acknowledge Neil Hibbert, whose support, and encouragement contributed positively to this thesis in so many ways. Thank you all. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval ii Abstract iii Dedication iv Acknowledgements v Table ofContents vi List ofTables viii List ofAcronyms and Abbreviations ix Chapter: I Introduction I Why Study Organic Food? I Major Themes 9 Research Design 14 Conclusion 21 Chapter 2: A Clash ofValues: The Organic Philosophy and the Corporate Approach to Organic Agriculture 23 Introduction 23 The Roots ofthe Organic Philosophy 25 The Components ofthe Organic Philosophy 36 The 'Corporate' Approach to Organic Food Production 44 Conclusion 50 Chapter 3: Business As Usual? Corporate Strategies in the Organic Food Sector. 52 Introduction 52 Restructuring the Agro-food Sector: From Agriculture to Agribusiness 53 Conventional Corporate Strategies Applied to the Organic Sector 65 Implications ofthe Corporate Strategies for Substantive Elements ofthe Organic Philosophy 81 Conclusion 93 Chapter 4: From Private To Public: Instituting Organic Food Regulations Into Public Policy Frameworks 95 Introduction 95 From Private to Public: the Changes in Organic Agriculture Policies 97 Institutionalizing Organic Food Regulations into National Policy Frameworks 111 Regulating Organic Agriculture at the Federal Level., 114 Conclusion 128 Chapter 5: Globalizing Organic Food: Regulating Organic In Regional and Global Trade Agreements 130 Introduction 130 The NAFTA and the WTO: Basic Principles ofTrade Applicable to Organic Food and Agriculture 132 The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade and the Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary Measures 140 International Authorities on Organic Agriculture Standards: The Codex, ISO and IFOAM 147 Conclusion 157 VI Chapter 6: The Development and Transformation of the Early Organic Social Movement.. 159 Introduction 159 The Origins ofthe Organic Social Movement.. 160 The Organic Movement in Transition 182 Conclusion 192 Chapter 7: New Actors, New Directions: The Contemporary Organic Movement as an Advocacy Network 194 Introduction 194 The Rise in Professional Organizations in the Organic Social Movement.. 195 Issue Linkage: The Anti-GMO and Organic Movement 206 Conclusion 214 Chapter 8: Conc1usions- Moving Beyond Organic? Contributions to Political Economy and Future