LET THE PEOPLE SPEAK: SOLIDARITY CULTURE AND THE MAKING OF A TRANSNATIONAL OPPOSITION TO THE MARCOS DICTATORSHIP, 1972-1986 BY MARK JOHN SANCHEZ DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History with a minor in Asian American Studies in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2018 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Augusto Espiritu, Chair Professor Antoinette Burton Associate Professor Jose Bernard Capino Professor Kristin Hoganson Abstract This dissertation attempts to understand pro-democratic activism in ways that do not solely revolve around public protest. In the case of anti-authoritarian mobilizations in the Philippines, the conversation is often dominated by the EDSA "People Power" protests of 1986. This project discusses the longer histories of protest that made such a remarkable mobilization possible. A focus on these often-sidelined histories allows a focus on unacknowledged labor within social movement building, the confrontation between transnational and local impulses in political organizing, and also the democratic dreams that some groups dared to pursue when it was most dangerous to do so. Overall, this project is a history of the transnational opposition to the Marcos dictatorship in the Philippines. It specifically examines the interactions among Asian American, European solidarity, and Filipino grassroots activists. I argue that these collaborations, which had grassroots activists and political detainees at their center, produced a movement culture that guided how participating activists approached their engagements with international institutions. Anti-Marcos activists understood that their material realities necessitated an engagement with institutions more known to them for their colonial and Cold War legacies such as the press, education, human rights, international law, and religion. They were keenly aware that these engagements could assist in internationalizing the injustices of the Marcos government. However, even as they pursued change from within these institutions, they also worked to fiercely protect the centrality of grassroots voices. Ultimately, I argue that these mobilizations, which predated the more mainstream post-1983 opposition to the Marcos dictatorship laid the groundwork for the democratic mobilizations in the Philippines that culminated in the EDSA revolution of 1986. ii Acknowledgements Acknowledgements pages have always been one of my favorite parts of books and dissertations. I looked forward to the day that I would be able to sit down and express gratitude to those people that have been a big part of my life and of this project. I chose the day after my dissertation defense to put this gratitude into writing because I felt that in the feelings of relief and joy at completing such a big step in this journey, it is important for me to take time to take note of the abundance of support that has helped make this happen. I deeply apologize for any omissions and any errors herein are mine alone. I am grateful for a generously critical committee. Antoinette Burton has pushed me to think of the broad ramifications of my work from the very beginning, and she has been a model for how to foster spaces of critical intellectual exchange. JB Capino has been a supportive voice, providing intellectual and gastronomic nourishment both in Urbana and Quezon City. I am grateful for the ways that he has helped me see what I was doing before I could even figure it out myself. Kristin Hoganson has been precisely the critical eye that this work has needed. She has made me a better writer and consistently pushed me to connect the dots. Augusto Espiritu has been the best mentor/advisor I could have ever asked for, and I have benefited so much from his advice, critique, and encouragement. Augusto encouraged me to pursue this project in its very early stages and has been a great example for the kind of teacher and intellectual I would like to be. I have incurred a great many research-related debts throughout this dissertation. In the United States, Michael Cullinane spent countless hours discussing his experiences with me. He and Mogi opened their home to me so that I could look through his vast collection of newsletters and other ephemera. Thank you for your warmth and conversation throughout this journey. Larry iii Ashmun at the University of Wisconsin Library has supported this work since my first year as a graduate student, and I am grateful for him always remembering me whenever something to do with the late-20th century Philippines made it into the collection. Dorothy Cordova at Filipino American National Historical Society helped me connect with activists in Seattle and patiently shared from her wealth of knowledge. The Taca family opened their home to share with me the papers of the late Arturo Taca of Movement for a Free Philippines. Cindy Domingo and Karen Hanna generously shared of their connections to anti-martial law activists. In the Philippines, Grace Tabiendo at University of the Philippines helped me access and make sense of the deeply significant Radical Papers Collection. Susan Macabuag opened the doors of Bantayog ng mga Bayani and invited me to be a part of their activities while I was in town. Sunshine Serrano made sure there was space for me to pore through the document collections of Task Force Detainees Philippines and was always available to discuss the history of TFDP and Sr. Mariani Dimaranan. Leloy Claudio and Mario Feir were generous in sharing documents and books from their respective private collections. Cora Quisumbing and Marilou Quisumbing-Baybay helped introduce me to a number of anti-Marcos activists. Helen Mendoza provided a home for me while I was on research, introduced me to her vast networks, and shared from her rich life experiences over delicious meals at the house on Apo Street. Tita Helen and Kuya Delfin, I will never be able to fully express my gratitude, but I hope that I have finished the project that we spent so many hours discussing and debating might be a start. In the Netherlands, Evert de Boer and Malu Padilla introduced me to a number of individuals based in the Philippines and in the Netherlands who had made up the solidarity movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Evert also helped me navigate and plan the logistics of my iv research in Holland. I am eternally grateful for the efforts of Evert and Malu to make me feel comfortable in what was a new and unfamiliar environment. This research has been made possible by a number of institutions. The Graduate College as well as the History Department at University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign provided much needed research funding. The Institute of Philippine Culture at Ateneo de Manila University provided a welcoming institutional home during my research. Research fellowships and grants from the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, the Nelle M. Signor Scholarship fund, the Hoover Institute, and the Department of Asian American Studies at University of Illinois helped make much-needed research trips possible. To my friends in Urbana-Champaign, Utathya Chattopadhyaya has brought a vibrant joy to what is often a lonely pursuit. John Marquez has been a fellow traveler since the days of Cal State Fullerton, and I have been made the better for it. Christine Peralta inspires me to make sure I am asking the right questions. Raquel has been there for both the unstoppable laughs and tears. Zachary Riebeling has provided warmth and the wit at exactly the right time. Together, this group of people has been the U of I History Department community that has carried me across the finish line. Warm evenings at the Iron Post patio, celebratory dinners for each of our achievements, a listening ear in times of distress -- I will remember and treasure it all. I am awed by your brilliance, comforted by your friendship, and continuously taken aback at my luck to have been counted among you. Xavier Hernandez, a dear friend since high school, has been there whenever I needed to be reminded of home. You brought stability in times of uncertainty, and I thank you. David Hamilton, Peter Escobar, Ben Bamberger, Elizabeth Matsushita, Eliza Dreier, Lisa Morrison, David Lehman, Carolina Ortega, and Juan Mora have so greatly enriched my time in Illinois through beers, coffees, meals, barbecues, board games, and more. Joshua Levy v and Ga Young Chung were amazing writing partners at a time when I was trying to figure out how to start putting words on a page. I already miss our sessions at Flying Machine and Caffe Bene. Ate Carleen Sacris, Kuya Edward Chainani, Monica Santos, Mike Atienza, Isabel Martinez, and Diego Navarro, thank you for creating a space for the diaspora in East Central Illinois. Genevieve Clutario, Tessa Winkelmann, Constancio Arnaldo, and T.J. Tallie took the time, as they were finishing their own dissertations, to teach me what it meant to be a scholar of color in Illinois and in the academy more generally. I am grateful for their model of ethical and engaged scholarship. Shannon Croft, Tom Bedwell, Roberta Price, and the rest of the staff at the History Department helped me navigate one administrative puzzle after another with humor and patience. Finally, Kamau Grantham was there to listen when that was what I needed. For teaching me to reach out and helping me take care of myself, I thank you. From Madison, Sheila Zamar, Lorelie Grepo, Erin Cantos, Tom Cantos, and Maureen Justiniano have been supportive friends and even better mah jong opponents. Since our time together in SEASSI, Jennifer Sta. Ana, Lauren Pongan, and katrina quisumbing king have been great friends and even better people. I am inspired by their steadfast devotion to social justice within their communities.