Shifting Representations of South Africa in National Geographic Magazine 1960-2006: Nature as Allegory _________________________________________________ Natalia Anderson Submitted to the University of Witwatersrand as part of the requirements for the MA (Publishing Studies), Johannesburg 2009. Declaration I declare that this research report is my own unaided work. It has been submitted for the degree of Master of Arts (Publishing Studies), in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination at any other university. ______________________ Natalia Anderson 9th day of February, 2009. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii List of Tables and Figures viii Preface xii Introduction…………………………..……………….……………………………………….….1 PART ONE Theoretical Framework and Related Literature Chapter 1: Stylising nature, Naturalising Allegory............................................................................11 1.1. Definitions – „Ecocriticism‟, „Nature‟, „Allegory‟……………………………………………..12 1.2. Typological Allegory......................................………………………………………………….24 1.2.1. Roderick Frazier Nash: Wilderness and the American Mind......………………………….....24 1.2.1(i) Barney Nelson – Commentaries and Criticisms....................................................................32 1.2.1(ii) South African Context..........................................................................................................37 1.2.2. Tropes of nature........................................................................................................................48 1.3. Psychological Allegory...................................………………………………………………….61 1.3.1. „Nature as Allegory‟ and the „elements‟...………………………………………………...….61 1.3.2. „Nature as Allegory‟ and the „kingdom of plants‟.........……………………………………...65 1.3.3. „Nature as Allegory‟ and „megafauna‟…….……….....……………………………………...69 1.4. Nature, Allegory and National Geographic........................………….……………………....…74 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................85 PART TWO Historical Overview: (1960-2006) Chapter 2: Representations: 1962 – Mapping Eden...........................................................................88 2.1. Historical Overview…………………………………………………………………………….88 2.2. Synopsis………………………………………………………………………………………...91 2.3. The Palliative Garden Trope….…….……………………………………………………….....96 Case Study A: Cultivating Golden Allegories in the Republic of South Africa……...…………...106 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................118 Chapter 3: Representations: 1977 – Re-representing the „Garden‟..................................................122 3.1. Historical Overview…………………………………………………………………………...122 3.2. Synopsis……………………………………………………………………………………….128 3.3. Imagining Kruger ………………………….……………………………...…………..…….138 Case Study B: „Thundering‟ African Herds: The Ideological Airspace of the Aerial Photograph……………………………………………….141 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................148 Chapter 4: Representations: 1986 - Desert Solitaire Wilderness.....................................................150 4.1. Historical Overview and Synopsis ………………………..….………………………………150 Case Study C: The Colonial and Post-Colonial Gaze: Allegorising Landscape……………....….158 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................165 Chapter 5: Representations: 1996 - South Africa‟s Edens...............................................................169 5.1. Historical Overview and Synopsis…………………………………………………….……...171 5.2. Re-imagining Kruger………………………………………………………………………….173 5.3. Geographic Felinephilia? Cove[r]ted Cats and Dormant Dogs ………………..……………..178 5.4. Man versus Beast: Replaying Ancient Battles of Good over Evil……………………………187 Case Study D: Spatial and Temporal Metamorphosis: From the „Twilight of Apartheid‟ to „spring in a new democracy‟…….....................…...………..194 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................202 Chapter 6: Representations: 2002 – Nature as Theatre: „the greatest shoal on earth‟.....................209 6.1. Historical Overview and Synopsis ………………………………..………………………….209 6.2. Novak‟s Typology…………………………………………………………………………….210 6.3. Rethinking the Shark………………………………………………………………..……… 212 6.4. Dramatising Nature....…………………………………………….………………………… 218 Case Study E: Allegorical Names: South Africa Personified…………...……………………….. 223 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................228 Chapter 7: Reflections: Synthesis of Shifting Representations: (1960- 2006)..................................231 7.1. Typological Allegory......................................…………………..…………………..……… 233 7.2. Psychological Allegory...................................…………………………..……………...….. 240 INTRODUCTION „green thinking‟ With time, the subject matter, point of view, and technical execution of photography change. Reportage changes as well, even styles of titles. Today we would hardly call radioactive atoms „obedient‟ and „friendly‟ as we did in two titles during the 1950s. Just as parents can embarrass their children, so our former attitudes and expressions often seem dated. Put in the broader perspective of two or three more generations, though, and the whole takes on the cast of history. -Editor William Garrett, introducing the National Geographic Magazine Centennial Index (1888-1988): Editorial, „Witness to a Century of Change‟ (NG/Feb1989/275). Beautiful, influential, familiar and famous predominantly for its photographs, is there any other institution more widely associated with nature than National Geographic? Up until 1979, it was „primarily‟ a magazine of „natural history‟ (Pauly, 1979:518). Although this no longer seems to be the case,1 the representation of nature has always been, and continues to be, a consistent feature in the magazine. As such, National Geographic is arguably, still „an important source of popular perceptions and misperceptions of the natural world and the scientific endeavour‟ (Pauly, 1979:518).2 Through the National Geographic looking glass we gaze at the natural world as did generations around the globe before us. While children are often disappointed with zoos because of the inactivity of the animals and their tendency not to meet the human gaze (Berger, 1980:21), in the glossy pages of National Geographic, they would not have to page through too many copies to find an animal seemingly looking squarely at them.3 In this way imaged nature, can often be more animated - than „reel‟ nature.4 1 I have not included environmental issues in the way I have defined nature here. 2 Pauly (1979) makes this comment about the National Geographic Society in the context of its scientific research expeditions, but there is actually no reason why one should not extrapolate this role to its magazine, particularly as the magazine generally carried news of these expeditions. 3 This is an informal observation based on years of reading both magazines. Although, admittedly, the earlier one goes back the harder it seems to find this face-to-face image. 4 This conclusion is based on my own informal observations but has been influenced by Eco (1986), who speaks of „hyperreality‟, and Lawrence, (2001). In addition, Mitman‟s book, Reel Nature: America‟s Romance with Wildlife on film (1999), is the inspiration for this pun. The central concern of this report, then, is the way that the magazine has imagined the relationship that humans have, and have had with nature, and the way this has been imaged and written about. Its central contention is that the representation of nature in National Geographic‟s South Africa is an allegory. The magazine does not present a nature that is a simple, objective recording of physical actualities its staff sees in the environment. Through selection, framing and discourse, the nature that we are shown has a meta-text that is polysemic. Out of the multitudinous meanings it could have, this study is primarily concerned with two: the first, what the images reveal about the human-nature relationship at that particular point in history; the second, how these images reflect popular international perceptions about the socio-political climate in the country at various times. This binary of reveal and reflect, fits neatly into Barney‟s (1979) sub-division of allegory into the two categories of „typological‟ and „psychological‟. Before launching into a definition of typological allegory, and to assist the reader to better understand what it entails, a quote from an ecocritical text is useful: „Every epoch, age and era had “its own nature,” with myth, history and ideology as its dominant shaping forces‟ (Herzogenrath, 2000:blurb). This statement is based on constructivist theory that purports that people throughout history have viewed the literal environment through a cultural lens. As attitudes towards nature have changed, the perceptions of that environment have changed. Conversely, as physical, environmental, economic or other conditions have changed, attitudes