5 g. er e\>~ a ~ ?£5 VQ P» 5122 “Q § _.S § ~A 5 $5 3 3; 5 §` *é *I* fi 32: fi §k Q's “‘;'$a '» !; § n~ » *f The Politics of Food in Mexico State Power and Social Mobilization ]oNATHAN Fox Why do some reforms succeed when so many fail? How can states better target programs to benefit the poor? jonathan Fox compares a broad range of food policy reforms in Mexico, long one of Latin America’s most autono mous states, in order to shed light on the broader problem of the determinants of state capacity. Moving beyond conventional state and society-centered theories, Fox proposes an interactive approach to discover why con flicts within the state interact recursively with changes in the balance of power within soci ety. In a thorough examination of the politics of policy reform from both above and below since Mexico’s revolution, the author concen trates on the SAM experiment (Sistema Alimentario Mexicano, Mexican Food Sys tem), a brief but massive subsidy program designed to channel oil boom revenues to ward national food self-sufficiency. Although most of the SAM’s food policy reform efforts failed to reach the poorest people, the exten sive village store network proved to be an important exception. For the first time in Mexico, an anti-poverty program encouraged its ostensible beneficiaries to hold the bureau crats accountable. This opening from above encouraged autonomous mobilization from below, changing the contours of peasant poli tics. The dynamic interaction between state reformists and autonomous social movements weakened Mexico’s entrenched authoritarian elites. This “sandwich strategy” provides a framework for understanding future paths for political change in Mexico, and may well (continued on back flap) ..' The Politics of Food in Mexico Food Systems and Agrarian Change Edited by Frederick H. Buttel, Billie R. DeWalt, and Per Pinstrup-Andersen A complete list of titles in the series appears at the end of this book. THE POLITICS OF FOOD IN MEXICO State Power and Social Mobilization Jonathan Fox Cornell University Press ITHACA AND LONDON This One PE7N-JUY-JWYE Copyright © 1992 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, 124 Roberts Place, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 1993 by Cornell University Press. International Standard Book Number 0-8014-2716-9 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 92-25948 Printed in the United States of America Librarians: Library of Congress cataloging information appears on the last page of the book. © The paper in this book meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39. 48-1984. To my parents Contents Tables and Figures viii Acknowledgments ix 1 Introduction 1 2 State-Society Interaction and Distributive Reform in Mexico 9 3 The Revolutionary Roots of Reform from Above: State Initiative and the Mexican Food System 41 4 Implementing Food Policy: Interests and Inertia 83 5 Reform Dynamics in Practice: Public versus Private Intermediaries 126 6 The Sandwich Strategy: Opening from Above Meets Mobilization from Below 151 7 Lessons for Understanding Political Change in Mexico 206 Glossary 2.X9 Bibliography 232 Index 273 vu Tables and Figures Tables 1 Levels of peasant mobilization, 1976- 1982 (yearly) 64 2 National press reports of peasant mobilizations (monthly), January 1979- March 1980 65 3 Grain system- related market shares of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) as of 1979 89 4 Government retail sales of staple foods, 1978- 1985 116 5 Representation at the First National Meeting of Community Food Councils 195 Figures 1 CONASUPO-COPLAMAR food distribution operations 176 2 The political dynamics of rural reform 220 via Acknowledgments When I began the field research for this book, I thought I knew what I would find. But the most interesting facts turned out not to fit the con ventional frameworks, challenging me to revise my assumptions. I very much appreciate the encouragement offered by friends and colleagues along the way. I first thank Peter Smith, now of the University of Califor nia, San Diego, and James Austin of the Harvard Business School for their advice and support as I prepared the first version of this work. Peter Smith's urging to keep the "big picture" in focus was especially helpful, and James Austin taught me a great deal about how policies become actions. The field research and initial writing were supported by generous and timely grants from the Inter-American Foundation during 1984-85 and the Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies at the University of California, San Diego during 1985-86. Follow-up research in 1986 was supported in part by the Institute for the Study of World Politics. I was fortunate to find many generous teachers in the countryside, es pecially the hundreds of campesinos and rural development workers who shared their experiences with me. I also thank David Barkin, Gustavo Esteva, and Fernando Rello, who helped orient me when I first began working in Mexico in 1982. Many present and former government offi cials at all levels (most of whom will remain anonymous) were very help ful and trusted my pledge of confidentiality. Cassio Luiselli and Jesus Rubiell were especially insightful. Numerous collaborative research projects with Mexican colleagues be gan at an early stage. Three working friendships were especially impor tant. Meeting Gustavo Gordillo in 1984 was a turning point for my un IX Acknowledgments x demanding of the subtleties and contradictions embedded in the relation ship between reformist policymakers and peasant movements. One of my greatest pleasures was attending peasant movement assemblies and work ing in villages with Manuel Fernandez; his sensitivity to grassroots poli tics helped me bridge the cultural gaps one must never underestimate. Luis Hernandez's intellectual generosity, creative insights, and way with words never cease to amaze me. Many other friends and colleagues provided invaluable comments on the work in progress. I have especially appreciated theoretical discussions over the years with Jose Antonio Aldrete Haas, Viviane Brachet de Mar- quez, Richard Cloward, Joshua Cohen, Maria Lorena Cook, Gary Her- rigel, Sylvia Maxfield, Gerardo Munck, Frances Fox Piven, Jeffrey Rubin, Margaret Sherraden, and Lynn Stephen. I am grateful for insights and support from Betsy Aron, Marta Guidi, Raul Hinojosa, Julio Moguel, Susan Pezzullo, Charlie Roberts, and Mauricio Sanchez. Jennie Purnell, Lydia Fraile, and Stephen Van Evera, as well as Cornell's reviewers and editors, provided excellent editorial suggestions. Figures 1 and 2 were designed with invaluable technical assistance from Michael Fox of Rebus Technologies (on both) and Gerardo Munck (on Figure 2). Eva Nagy's and Peter Kubaska's able assistance helped greatly in the editing, and Helen Shapiro's support made revision much less daunting. This book is based primarily on extensive interviews with more than fifty key participants at all levels of the food policy process, supported by a systematic survey of published materials and access to several collec tions of unpublished documents from both policy-makers and peasant leaders. Most of those interviewed are still involved in complex and sometimes dangerous political conflicts and therefore requested anonym ity. Translations are my own unless otherwise indicated. Some sections have been published before. Chapter 4 is based in part on an article I originally wrote with James Austin, "State-Owned Enter prises: Food Policy Implementers," in Food Policy in Mexico, ed. James Austin and Gustavo Esteva (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987). A much shorter version of Chapter 6 appeared as "Popular Participation and Access to Food: Mexico's Community Food Councils," in Harvest of Want, Struggles for Food Security in Central America and Mexico, ed. Scott Whiteford and Ann Ferguson (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991). Those interested in a Spanish version can consult "La dinamica del cam- bio en el Sistema Alimentario Mexicano, 1980-82," in Historia de la cuestion agraria mexicana: Los tiempos de la crisis, 1970- 198 2, ed. Julio Moguel, part 1, vol. 9 (Mexico City: Siglo XXI CEHAM, 1990), which summarizes Chapters 4-6. Jonathan Fox Cambridge, Massachusetts The Politics of Food in Mexico -i VjVv^ «? * 8 if Honduras $ J U UUU_°...L.fi/__Gp.AU.. ,C.N N ^VVJalisco/*r-7^\/JseRnV~ <^Guadala-ra^U__-j.^hidalgOXPU°\ » / AU c ue,iTaCAPco P0NueJ-°R° ^^"^VTUA. J-"R-Queretaro./X?S\/L<sz"1* ji■ VjHf^Lantify*^{(\ GulfofCampecheXXJINN.A/ —»i/\_ \\ ROO/\ y Ml\nii > V^Ueracruz^CAMPECHEA .,IIVMAL- -J3FEDERAL* -__-°--UANR.L\NL) -^ichoACPn.PueNa/H,^~, __A--0oRRSl~Acy^>."0<-_--■< V_r-'R-N—;x.•> ^^__1^Vhiapas\_U OAXACA N'N ^-^^s^X/\Gulfof Guatemala ' iNAYARrt;'AGNAN-\i /-T^A ^Ny California,oftheforStudiestheofAdaptedwith-MexicanSanpermissionCenterU.S.UniverNityDiego. at sf~\^^-v_\ GULFOF— ^1>^_,^A/\ \A RUERRERO' J\ Monterrey MEXICO" / .^^ Y^-—-.Ypueblafr<,,\_^^^tabasc:o^-\< \ -—_____ \Tebuantepec\_^) , \.-A\y^ -\ UNITEDSTATES A ]C/"-AChihuahua _z ^~\)HNNEVO^—^^"M v P\vi-Vrif-N _/tamaulipas\VLA . Co"<*c«R- y COMIUII.A U_ALEONJ *£<v.<DURANGO > \( yir P°_A°- U.-N., ^\P/A-77 / V\^-_Vx/\^-/ CHIHUAHUA/ XV^^\ |ZAC.ECAN\ . ^\Ruarez1 \^Ar1 2000100300 \%\/ \NONORA _____ )S\H 4 OCEAN — VI^"oX. ^ JA^~ Miles \/^>sv^ N_~.* \R\V% ^ PACIFIC J) <"'1 V Mexicali ^ \ Y.'ijuana \^ ^ / Introduction This is a book about an unexpected outcome. From 1980 through 1982, the Mexican government pursued a top-down reform strategy to confront the twin crises of low food production and widespread hunger. Since most past rural antipoverty programs had failed to overcome entrenched elite interests, one would expect this new round of reforms to have led only to "more of the same." Indeed, much of the effort to undo the long-standing policy bias against the poor was effectively blunted or co-opted.