A “Feminine” Heartbeat in Evangelicalism and Fundamentalism DAVID R. ELLIOTT Protestant fundamentalism has often been characterized as militant, rationalistic, paternalistic and even misogynist.1 This was particularly true of Baptist and Presbyterian fundamentalists who were Calvinists. Yet, evangelicalism and fundamentalism also had a feminine, mystical, Arminian expression which encouraged the active ministry of women and which had a profound impact upon the shaping of popular piety through devotional writings and mystical hymnology.2 This paper examines the “feminine” presence in popular fundamentalism and evangelicalism by examining this expression of religion from the standpoint of gender, left brain/right brain differences, and Calvinistic versus Arminian polarities. The human personality is composed of both rational and emotional aspects, both of equal value. The dominance of either aspect reflects the favouring of a particular hemisphere of the brain. Males have traditionally emphasized the linear, rational left side of the brain over the intuitive, emotional right side. Females have tended to utilize the right side of the brain more,3 although some males are more right-brained and some females are more left-brained. Such differences may be genetic, hormonal or sociological. Brain researcher Marilyn Ferguson favours the sociologi- cal explanation and suggests a deliberate reorientation to the right side of the brain as means of transforming society away from confrontation to a state of peace. She sees the feminist movement accomplishing much of this transformation of society by emphasizing the right side of the brain.4 When looking at the two dominant expressions of Protestantism – Historical Papers 1992: Canadian Society of Church History 80 “Feminine” Heartbeat in Evangelicalism and Fundamentalism Calvinism and Methodism, we find what appears to be a left/right brain dichotomy. Calvinism often denied the emotional aspect of life and faith, seeing God as an austere deity. Its cold rationalism caused a Calvinistic church service to be described as “four bare walls and a sermon.”5 It was in response to that rigidity that many men and women turned to Arminianism, a more feminine theology that saw God as a loving deity. Arminianism was popularized by the Quakers and Wesleyans who borrowed from the Catholic mystics. These groups tended to offer a larger role for women in ministry. The following pairs of dichotomies, based upon ideal types, appear to hold true. Left brain Right brain masculine feminine scholastic mystical rational emotional linear intuitive male dominance sexes equal militant passive Calvinism Arminianism Presbyterian Wesleyan predestination free will fundamentalism evangelicalism Most women in the past were denied a formal education and formal theological training, yet they have had a considerable role in the shaping of popular piety, and this holds true especially in the development of evangelicalism and fundamentalism. Left to fend for themselves intellectu- ally, women sometimes resorted to popular theologies whose origins were often in what Ronald Knox has called the “intellectual underworld” of early Christian and medieval heresies which had manichaean overtones in its mysticism.6 Manichaeans were dualists, who rejected the body and matter as evil and emphasized the spiritual through asceticism. They had a heightened sense of the Devil. Manichaeism has been identified by Richard Hofstadter was one of the dominant traits of fundamentalism.7 Because heresy was a form of rebellion against the status quo, it provided an avenue for the emancipation of women.8 And women, having David R. Elliott 81 the major role in the nurturing of children, were able to transmit popular piety orally to their sons and especially to their daughters.9 We begin with the ideas and influence of Madame Guyon and a number of her disciples who shaped popular piety in evangelicalism and fundamentalism. They include Susanna Moody, Catherine Booth, Hannah Whitall Smith, Jessie Penn-Lewis, Amy Carmichael, Christabel Pankhurst, and Aimee Semple McPherson who championed the ministry of women. Madame Guyon (1648-1717) The mystical side of evangelicalism and fundamentalism was influenced by the beliefs and activities of a seventeenth-century French- Catholic mystic, Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Mothe Guyon. She was born into a wealthy, aristocratic French family whose ancestors had supported the cause of the Cathars, the medieval Manichaeans, in the enclave of Languedoc.10 She was an extremely talented but frustrated woman who was also emotionally troubled. In her autobiography, Madame Guyon would have us believe that she had an emotionally-deprived childhood. She claimed that she was rejected by her mother and was shuffled from convent to convent. Her relationship with her half-siblings was also poor and she claimed that they physically abused her.11 At the age of fifteen she was married, against her wishes, to a man twenty-two years her elder. Her marriage was exceedingly unhappy and she found solace in the mystical writings of St. Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales, Thomas A’Kempis and Ignatius Loyola; but she carried their ideas to extremes. Guyon’s thinking was very manichaean, seeing the flesh as evil. She may have been influenced in this regard by the mystics she had read, or she may also have come into direct contact with Albigensian or Cathar ideas which still persisted in the regions of south-eastern France where she lived and travelled. As one reads Guyon’s autobiography one is struck by her excessive morbidity. As a child she had a strong death wish and hoped for martyr- dom. After her marriage she tried to cut out her tongue. Everywhere she saw enemies and persecutors: her mother, her half-brothers and sisters, her husband, her mother-in-law, her maids and the priests. Her behaviour and comments make one suspect that she was a manic-depressive or a paranoid schizophrenic. 82 “Feminine” Heartbeat in Evangelicalism and Fundamentalism As Madame Guyon pursued her mysticism she came to believe that she could achieve union with God through “self-crucifixion” and by becoming “nothing.”12 She dispensed with her jewelry, neglected her hair, wore plain clothing, picked at facial scabs to make them worse, and gave away vast amounts of her wealth. Her belief in sanctification (being made holy) or union with the divine became so extreme that she believed that she personally would become the physical bride of Christ. While still married to Guyon, she composed a marriage contract with Christ.13 As she read her Bible she believed that the description of the “corner-stone of the New Jerusalem” referred to herself. She would be the Queen of Heaven.14 After her husband died in 1676 Guyon travelled throughout France, Switzerland and Italy teaching her version of mysticism in various convents. She had been inspired by Marie de l’Incarnation who became famous in New France.15 In stepping out of the traditional role for women, Madame Guyon became part of the dévotes movement that was sweeping France.16 Among Madame Guyon’s disciples were a Barnabite friar La Combe, Archbishop Fénelon (1651-1715), who was a distant relative, and Madame de Maintenon, the consort of Louis XIV. Guyon and her circle became known as Quietists because they believed the “still small voice of God” could be heard within them if they had “crucified self.” Because of her belief in divine union she dispensed with oral prayer; since she taught that one could arrive at a state of sinlessness – confession, and penance were also unnecessary.17 Her views were soon linked with those of a heretical Spanish priest, Molinos, who taught that if one sinned, one was not culpable because the temptation came from the Devil.18 Louis XIV took steps to silence Guyon and her followers by having La Combe arrested. He was condemned as a heretic by the Inquisition and died in prison. Action was also taken against Fénelon who was banished to his diocese. Guyon’s writings were examined by Bishop Bossuet who condemned thirty of her propositions as heretical or inclined to be misleading. She was put in the Bastille for four years. In 1701 she was released but spent the rest of her life under house arrest. While under house arrest Madame Guyon continued to have a great influence. Her autobiography and theological writings were translated and published by Protestants who regarded her as one of them, which she was not; she remained a member of the Catholic church until her death. Protestant pilgrims from France, England and Scotland flocked to her David R. Elliott 83 house where she held court. Thus the ideas of Madame Guyon, Fénelon and Molinos were adopted by various Protestant groups. According to one historian of the Quakers, the works of Guyon, Fénelon and Molinos could be found in almost every Quaker library.19 Guyonese mysticism, with its emphasis on “death-to-self,” divine union with Christ, and divine guidance, became a major feature of the holiness movement, which is discussed below. As well, for many years, Moody Press, a leading fundamentalist publishing house in Chicago, published her autobiography. Her works became text books at Prairie Bible Institute at Three Hills, Alberta during this century while under the leadership of L.E. Maxwell. Guyon continues to attract attention with a recent evangelical biography of her being published in 1986.20 Her modern disciples have treated her neuroses as evidence of spirituality. Susanna Wesley (1669-1742) Guyonese mysticism passed into evangelicalism largely through the Wesleys. Susanna Wesley (née Annesley), the mother of John and Charles, was a theologian in her own right. When her Anglican minister husband Samuel was away, Susanna preached in his stead. Both Susanna and Samuel Wesley were quite familiar with the works of the Catholic mystics.21 Susanna tried to instill “death-to-self” in her children. John Wesley’s biographer has noted that Susanna ruled the family as a matriarch.