FROM INDIAN TO INDO-CREOLE: TASSA DRUMMING, CREOLIZATION, AND INDO- CARIBBEAN NATIONALISM IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO By CHRISTOPHER L. BALLENGEE A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2013 1 © 2013 Christopher L. Ballengee 2 In memory of Krishna Soogrim-Ram 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to numerous individuals for helping this project come to fruition. Thanks first to my committee for their unwavering support. Ken Broadway has been a faithful champion of the music of Trinidad and Tobago, and I am grateful for his encouragement. He is indeed one of the best teachers I have ever had. Silvio dos Santos’ scholarship and professionalism has likewise been an inspiration for my own musical investigations. In times of struggle during research and analysis, I consistently returned to his advice: “What does the music tell you?” Vasudha Narayanan’s insights into the Indian and Hindu experience in the Americas imparted in me an awareness of the subtleties of common practices and to see that despite claims of wholly recreated traditions, they are “always different.” In my time at the University of Florida, Larry Crook has given me the freedom—perhaps too much at times—to follow my own path, to discover knowledge and meaning on my own terms. Yet, he has also been a mentor, friend, and colleague who I hold in the highest esteem. Special thanks also to Peter Schmidt for inspiring my interest in ethnographic film and whose words of encouragement, support, and congratulations propelled me in no small degree through the early and protracted stages of research. Gratitude also to Peter Manuel whose many email conversations nourished a great deal of my work. In the field, there are far too many to thank. My work is our work through and through. First and foremost, Lenny Kumar took me on like a brother: hosting me in his home, conversing about music and philosophy, laughing and celebrating alongside me, and literally driving me all over the country. As is evident in my writing, I am truly indebted to Lenny more than I can ever repay. Likewise Nita, Lenora, and Lennita Kumar deserve equal thanks for allowing my wife and I to invade their home and steal 4 away their husband and father for weeks at a time. Thanks also to Trinidad and Tobago Sweet Tassa members Shiva Persad, Keron Ramkeessoon, Kevin Mohammed, George Baboolal, “Big” George, and Thomas Ramoutar. The Tampa branch of Trinidad and Tobago Sweet Tassa also became great friends over the years. Thanks to Amarnath Ramkissoon, Vishwanath Woods, Jonathan Sanowar, Vishal Deo, and especially Rohan Abraham for inviting me to join the band and putting up with my camera. Without their help, this project would not have been as successful and as fun as it has turned out to be. Krishna Soogrim-Ram passed away shortly after I spoke with him in August of last year. In the short time I knew him, his words and wisdom touched me in profound ways. I am grateful to Krishna and his son Sanjeet for providing a wealth of oral and photographic history that spans beyond the bounds of the present study. Federico Moratorio helped with cinematography and photography in Trinidad in spring of 2011. In the summer of 2012, Heather Hall also assisted with filming, photography, and interviews. I thank them both for technical help and good times. I thank Brinsley Samaroo and Kumar Mahabir for providing academic support and helping to arrange my first trip to Trinidad in 2007 and subsequent conversations about this or that detail. Profound thanks to the congregation of Aramalaya Presbyterian Church for making me feel at home during my stay in Tunapuna. I am especially grateful to Rev. Everson Sieunarine who became my closest friend and confidant that summer. I will never forget our journeys into town and into the bush and for all the conversation along the way. My work was facilitated by a dedicated support network on campus including, among others, Laura Robertson and June Hall in the College of Fine Arts and in the School of Music, Trent Weller, Charles Pickeral, Amanda Mayberry-Hipp, and John 5 Duff. Also thanks to Robena Cornwell and Michelle Wilbanks whose stewardship and direction of the Music Library helped tremendously during my time at the University of Florida. Moreover, I have deeply depended upon my colleagues, especially Jack Forbes, Chris Witulski, Sunni Witmer, Elikem Nyamuame, Hicham Chami, and Brian Holder, for moral and intellectual support. I am honored by their friendship and scholarly advice. My research was sponsored in part by the A. Curtis Wilgus Fellowship from the University of Florida Center for Latin American Studies, the University of Florida Graduate School Dissertation Award, and numerous travel grants from the University of Florida Graduate Student Council and the University of Florida Office of Research and Graduate Programs. Thanks also to Owen and Elizabeth Reynolds and the technical theatre crew at Santa Fe College for helping to build tassa drums and giving me more leeway that I deserved to retreat from the theatre and finish my dissertation. I am nothing without the love and support of my family. This journey has kept me away from them for far too long, and I have a long road yet to travel. Luckily, I have an excellent traveling partner. Ty jesteś moim skarbem. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... 11 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 12 LIST OF OBJECTS ....................................................................................................... 16 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 19 East Indians in the West Indies ............................................................................... 23 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ....................................................... 25 Research Objectives and Methodology .................................................................. 38 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................... 42 2 TASSA ORGANOLOGY, TECHNIQUE, AND ENSEMBLE HIERARCHY .............. 44 Dhol Tasha in the Bhojpuri Diaspora ...................................................................... 45 Instruments of the Trinidadian Tassa Ensemble ..................................................... 54 Tassa................................................................................................................ 54 Bass (Dhol) ....................................................................................................... 67 Jhal (Jhanjh) ..................................................................................................... 77 Hierarchy within the Tassa Ensemble ..................................................................... 80 Playing Technique .................................................................................................. 82 Tassa................................................................................................................ 83 Bass ................................................................................................................. 84 Jhal ................................................................................................................... 85 Cognates with Creole Drumming Ensembles ......................................................... 87 Summary ................................................................................................................ 93 3 REPERTOIRE ........................................................................................................ 95 General Characteristics of Tassa Repertoire .......................................................... 96 Notes on Musical Analysis and Transcription ....................................................... 101 Folk and Classical Hands ..................................................................................... 105 Tikora ............................................................................................................. 105 Chaubola ........................................................................................................ 110 Nagara............................................................................................................ 115 Wedding Hand ................................................................................................ 118 Caribbean Hands .................................................................................................. 124 7 Dingolay ......................................................................................................... 124 Calypso .......................................................................................................... 130 Recently Composed Hands .................................................................................. 133 Chutney .........................................................................................................