The 16 Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in North Gandhara Taxila Western Province. Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank of Asmaka Potana River Godavari Vatsa Kaushambi Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur Avanti Ujjain Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya Pradesh. Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the Uttarapath Surasena Mathura & Dakshinapath Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern Budelkhand area Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern Uttar Maila Kushinara, Pawa Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of Kurus Hastinapur/Indraprastha River Yamuna Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was the Vajjis Vaishali seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members. Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Anga Champa Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into Magadha. Kashi Banaras Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, Kosala Shravasti etc. Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Magadga Girivraja/Rajgriha Shahabad. Ahichhatra (W. Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in Uttar Panchala Panchala), Pradesh. Kampilya (S. Panchala) Alexander Invasion • Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC • His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his soldiers • In 325 BC, he began his homeguard journey. • In 324 BC, he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year. Vedic Civilisation • Origin of Indian Music - Samveda • Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th • Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Mandala • Wife and Husband are complementary - • Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Satapathabrahmana • Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana • Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) • Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) • Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana • Varna - Rigveda • Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala • Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th • Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Mandala • Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada • Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala • Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Upanishada • Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana • War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda • Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha • Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada Upanishada FOUR VEDAS Samveda • Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda • "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value. • Has only 75 fundamental hymns 1. Karnataka - Jaiminga 2. Gujarat - Kanthun 3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya • Sung by Udgatri Rigveda • Collection of hymns • Oldest of all vedas • Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 • Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. • Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra • II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas • I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. • The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later. • Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. • Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma Yajurveda • Book of sacrifical prayers • Rituals of yajnas • Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu" • Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice. • Has been compiled in "fourth path" • Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda • Prose text Atharvaveda • Mantras for magic spells • Populate ritualistic system & superstitions • Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community • Collection of 711/731/760 hymns • Not included in 'Trai' • Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" • 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works • Provides freedom from evils spirits. • Oldest text on Indian Medicine. Vedas and their Brahmanas 1. Rigveda Aitereya and Kaushitaki Aranyaka 2. Samaveda Tandya and Jaiminiya • Literarily, it means 'Jungle' 3. Yajurveda Tattiriya and Satpatha • Provides description of Moral 4. Atharvaveda Gopatha Science and Philosophy • Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles • Give stress on meditation • Protests the system of 'Yajnas' Upanishada 1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples 2. Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy 3. They are also called "Vedanta" 4. Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" 5. Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. 6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world. 7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas 8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani 9. Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign Indus Valley Civilization: Year of Name of Sites Excavators Region/River Features Excavation 1. City followed grid planning 2. Row of six granaries Montgomery district 3. Only place having of Punjab (Now in evidences of coffin burial Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Sahni Pak) on the left bank 4. Evidence of fractional of Ravi burial and coffin burial 5. Cemetery-H of alien people. 1. City followed grid planning 2. A large granary and Great Bath, a college 3. Human skeletons showing invasiona and massacre. Larkana district in Mohenjo- 4. Evidence of Horse come 1922 R.D.Banarjee Sind on the right bank daro from superficial level. of Indus(Now in Pak) 5. A piece of woven cotton alongwith spindle whorls and needles 6. Town was flooded more then seven times. 1. The city has no citadal 2. Famous for bead makers shop 3. A small pot, possibly an N. Gopal inkpot Situtated in Sind on Chanhu-daro 1931 Majumdar, 4. Foot prints of a dog the bank of Indus Mackey chasing a cat 5. Three different cultural layers, Indus,Jhukar and Jhangar Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh Situated in Rajasthan 1. Shows both Pre Harappan on the Bank of and Harappan phase Ghaggar 2. Evidence of furrowed land 3. Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones 4. Many houses had their own well 5. Kalibangan stand for black bangles 6. Evidence of wooden furrow 1. A titled floor which bears intersecting design of circles 2. Remains of rice husk 3. Evidence of horse from a Situated in Gujarat on terracotta figurine Lothal 1953 S.R. Rao Bhogava river near 4. A ship designed on a seal Gulf of Cambay 5. Beads & trade ports 6. An instrument for measuring angles,pointing to modern day compass 1. Shows both Pre-Harappan and Harppan phase Situated in Hissar 2. Good quantity of barley Banwali 1974 R.S. Bisht district of Haryana found here 3. Situated in Kutch 1. Bones of horses, Bead Surkotada 1964 J.P. Joshi (Bhuj) district of making shops Gujarat 1. Trade point between Situated in Harappa and Babylon, Sutkagendor 1927 Stein, R.L. Baluchistan on Dast belong to mature phase River 2. Evidence of horse Situated in Sind on Amri 1935 N.G. Majumdar 1. Evidence of antelope the bank of Indus 1. Seven cultural stages 2. Largest site Situated in Gujarat in Dholavira 1985-90 R.S. Bisht 3. Three party of city Rann of Kutch 4. Unique water management M.S. Vats, B.B. Situated on the bank Rangpur 1953 1. Rice was cultivated Lal & S.R. Rao of Mahar in Gujarat 1. Wheel made painted pottery 2. Traces of defensive wall Situated on the bank Kot Diji 1953 Fazal Ahmed and well aligned streets of Indus 3. Knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc 1. Evidence of burying a dog below the human bural 2. One example of rectangular mudbrick Situated in Punjab of chamber was noticed Ropar 1953 Y.D. Sharma the banks of Sutlej 3. Five fold cultures - Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana - Gupta and Medieval 1. Remain of pre Harappan and Harappan civilisation Situated on the Balakot 1963-76 George F Dales 2. The mounds rise to the Arabian Sea height of about 9.7mts and are spread 2.8 sq hectare of area 1. The impression of cloth on a trough is discovered Situated on Hindon in Alamgirpur 1958 Y.D. Sharma Ghaziabad 2. Usually considered to be the eastern boundary of the Indus culture Essay on the Administrative System Of Guptas The age of the Guptas has been regarded as the age of progress in India by all historians. Of course, Dr. Romila Thaper seems to be near the mark when she contends that when we accept the Gupta period as the classical age of ancient India we have accepted its limitations also. That the living standard which reach 3d their peak were limited to upper classes alone and, further the classicism of the Gupta period was restricted to Northern India alone. With these limitation she agrees with others regarding the progress achieved during this period. Majority of scholars agree with the view that it was die "Golden Age" of Ancient India. Dr. V.A. Smith writes, "The age of great Gupta Kings presented a more agreeable and satisfactory picture than any other period in the history of Hindu India. Literature, Art and Science flourished in a degree beyond ordinary and gradual changes in the religion were effected without persecution." The empire of the Guptas was certainly less extensive than the empire of the Mauryas prior to them. The great Gupta ruler provided political unity to a large part of North India for nearly two centuries. The political institutions of the Gupta Age were not original but were rather "founded the historical traditions of the past and improved and adapted to suit contemporary conditions." They were both imposing and benevolent.