No Easy Walk: BUILDING DIPLOMACY IN THE HISTORY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS OF SOUTH AFRICA AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 1945-1987 -------------------------- -------------------------- Narissa Ramdhani Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities at the University of KwaZulu-Natal November, 2008 Declaration This study represents original work by the author and has not been submitted in any form to another university. Where use has been made of the work of others it has been duly acknowledged in the text. __________________________________ Narissa Ramdhani November 2008 __________________________________ Professor Catherine E. Burns Supervisor November 2008 This dissertation is dedicated to the two men who have influenced and brought such strength into my life. My late father, Harrynarain Ramdhani and my partner, Mashen Ramanand. Abstract No Easy Walk: Building Diploma cy in the History of the Relationship between the African National Congress of South Africa and the United States Of America, 1945 - 1 9 8 7 by Narissa Ramdhani Supervised by: Dr Catherine E Burns Department of History This dissertation examines the attempts of the African National Congress to establish a diplomatic relationship with the United States of America from 1945-1987. By exploring critical stages in the history of the movement, I will argue that the ANC responded in a positive manner to adverse and trying circumstances and events. The ANC far from being a victim was an agency of change. This was evident through its changing strategy of moving the freedom struggle to the international stage. This was undertaken as a mechanism to ensure its long term survival. Embarking on this strategy exposed Africa‟s oldest liberation movement to the intricacies and intrigues that characterised international diplomacy which in turn was governed by global developments such as the Cold War and the positioning of the Soviet Union within this. Starting on this road meant confronting the policies of different US administrations from Kennedy to Reagan. All of these administrations positioned their international policies, including their Africa policy within the context of international global developments such as the Cold War. A related and pertinent area that will be examined will be that of African diplomacy. My goal in examining this area will be to demonstrate that the ANC had no influence on African diplomatic developments on the continent. This reluctant recognition of this strengthened the imperative for a relationship with a powerful global player such as the USA. By dwelling at some length on the Reagan years, I argue that in spite of the intensity of repression in South Africa and the hostility of the Reagan administration, ironically this was “the” time of opportunity for the ANC. The 1980s witnessed the realisation of the movement‟s goals of securing the recognition of the USA. Many political dynamics characterising the USA‟s political landscape during this time, as well as that of the Soviet Union will be explored to demonstrate how the ANC succeeded in its endeavours by the late 1980s. Throughout this era, the USA Solidarity network played a critical role in shaping USA state policy towards the African National Congress and South Africa, resulting in recognition being granted to the ANC. The role of this Network, particularly on the East Atlantic Coast, will be interrogated with the aim of demonstrating how the power of this group had grown in the USA. The thesis also explores the complex historiographical tensions associated with a study of this nature, including the type of historical knowledge produced in the wake of democracy in South Africa in 1994. The study explores both the content and the politics of archival evidence gathered in and outside of South Africa. The major finding of this thesis is that the ANC‟s relationship with the USA was contested and contingent. The ANC appeared by 2003 to have had a long and distinguished relationship with the USA. This thesis explores just how fragile the relationship was in the 1945-1987 period. A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s The research and writing of this dissertation has involved a ten year journey which has been characterised by the development of meaningful relationships, the unfolding of a string of unforeseen events and many life-changing lessons. These have included the death of my father and the loss of all of my research data during an armed robbery. But I thank God for watching over me and giving me the strength to persevere and complete this study. Perhaps the most significant lesson I have drawn from this exercise is the relevance of the spirit of Ubunthu and how it pervaded every ounce of my work. For while the conclusion of this study marks the punctuation of many years of arduous, yet rewarding research, this dissertation has really been a collective effort, involving individuals and institutions on both sides of the Atlantic, political activists, colleagues and supervisors, employers, friends and family-.without whom this work would most certainly not have reached this point. Thanks are due embarrassingly to so many individuals of whom only a few can be mentioned here. But by far, one of the greatest debts goes to Catherine Burns, my supervisor. I remember having met Dr. Burns for the first time at the conference “The Future of the Past” held at the University of the Western Cape in July 1996. During that meeting we engaged on numerous issues and I knew instinctively then that I found a supervisor who would guide me well. My instincts were as they say „on the mark.‟ Undertaking an academic project of such a magnitude after a long sabbatical from this world was extremely difficult. But having my work supervised by Catherine helped ease me into the process and being „attached‟ to her in this manner became such a privilege. Her gentle, yet passionate style helped in my development of academic skills necessary for the production of a study of this nature, with the result that I could attribute my academic maturity purely to her efforts. Her scholarly views and stimulating criticism of historical style have added new and exciting layers to my research efforts. I hope that I have inherited a component of her academic strength so that it may serve me well in future academic efforts. But her compassion, understanding, unwavering support and friendship have all helped me through the very many difficult and trying times that have characterised the period of my research. She has taught me the meaning of perseverance with the result that I have succeeded in realising my goal of completing a study of ANC/USA Relations. She has built in me the confidence needed for such a study. This has meant so much to me and for that I shall be eternally grateful to you. Thank You Catherine. Others who have inspired me along the way include Shaheed Vawda and Anand Singh from the University of KwaZulu-Natal. I vividly remember their many visits to my offices at the former University of Durban-Westville, during which they did not hesitate to voice their displeasure at the lack of desired results in respect of the dissertation. To realise the result, I was always assured of their help and support. I thank them for this inspiration. I always remembered this in the concluding stages of my study. But the stern and wise words of an icon of South African struggle, Phyllis Naidoo, will remain with me for the rest of my life. Her candour at what she sometimes considered an illogical and ill- constructed view, in relation to my arguments, was so welcome and often helped bring me down to earth. The lessons I take from her life‟s experience will serve me well. I shall not forget the camaraderie of the faculty and students of the Department of Historical Studies of UKZN. Whether at seminars, or just during my visits to the Department, they were always so upbeat, often urging me on with words of encouragement and support and offers of help. To be part of such a caring group made me feel so special. Being away from academia for so long had caused me to forget the value of such warm and stimulating environments. Many thanks to those like Keith Breckenridge, Julie Parle and Sandi Thomson. I would also like to acknowledge the numerous institutions and repositories here in South Africa as well as in the USA for assistance rendered during the course of my research activities. I need to particularly note the assistance of staff at South African institutions which include the William Cullen Library at Wits University, the Department of Foreign Affairs at the Union Buildings, the ANC Archives at the University of Fort Hare and at ANC Headquarters in Johannesburg, and the Documentation Centre of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. In the USA, staff of the following institutions were extremely helpful: The National Archives in Washington D.C., Manuscripts and Archives at Yale University, the National Security Archive at George Washington University, The John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library in Boston, the Amistad Centre in New Orleans and the Transafrica Archives in Washington D.C. What I found particularly encouraging was the enthusiasm of staff to assist and their instantaneous agreement to help me tackle certain research dilemmas, especially those related to closed or sensitive material. Thanks are also due to the many South African and USA activists who were so agreeable to be interviewed for this study. Sitting with individuals who played such an important role in our quest for freedom, many of whom who had not set foot in our country, and recording their testimonies as they shared their thoughts about their work and their visions for the new democracy, was an unforgettable experience for me.