University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2015-10-20 Circular Progress: Health and Healthcare within Albertan Indian Residential Schools, 1920 - 1950 Larsson, Paula Larsson, P. (2015). Circular Progress: Health and Healthcare within Albertan Indian Residential Schools, 1920 - 1950 (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/25330 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/2621 master thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Circular Progress: Health and Healthcare within Albertan Indian Residential Schools, 1920 - 1950 by Paula Larsson A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HISTORY CALGARY, ALBERTA September, 2015 © Paula Larsson 2015 Abstract:U This study provides a systematic analysis of the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health of the pupils in Indian Residential Schools from 1920 – 1950. It focusses on a single province – Alberta – and utilizes an inter-disciplinary approach to understand how the interaction between the biological and the psychosocial conditions of the schools contributed to both immediate and chronic health problems for Aboriginal students. Through an examination of nutrition, sanitation, disease, healthcare interventions, and mental health in the schools, it is seen that any “progress” the Department made in regards to the health of students was circular. Department officials used the inherent flaws in the system of school governance – which gave a few men ultimate power over the living conditions of thousands of children – to circumvent the responsibility they held towards the health of students. The ultimate result was a malnourished and vulnerable student population suffering from endemic disease and psychological trauma. i Acknowledgements:U The path to completion of this thesis has been diverse and challenging. Each step of its creation served as a thorough education in the many factors that comprise the conclusion of a historical research project. At the beginning of the journey, I strode confidently into the crossroads, holding tight to a vision of the direction my path would take and the brilliant destination that was surely just around the corner. Yet as I travelled further down the road of research it slowly became clear that I had strode into a deep and laborious cavern and that shining destination was simply a mirage on the horizon, meant to tempt ambitious – or foolish – researchers like myself into the precarious world of academic study. It wasn’t long before I came upon the first foes which sought to disrupt my quest – time management and organization. These proved to be the greatest obstacles to overcome while I struggled through the researching, analyzing, writing, editing, re-writing, and re-editing of my thesis. If not for the help and support of others who kept me advancing down my path – sometimes with a gentle push forward and sometimes with a forcible pull back from the abyss of distraction – I would never have arrived at the destination. I would therefore like to acknowledge the following individuals, who served as a light when I was lost in the dark. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Frank W. Stahnisch, for his endless patience throughout the duration of this project. He continuously offered insight into the direction of my research and into the overall structure, analysis, and presentation of this thesis. His guidance has not only added strength to this project, but has instilled in me critical skills for use in future projects. He is a joy to work with and his tolerance for the many weaknesses of my writing process allowed room for me to grow as a scholar. It was a privilege to have him as my supervisor. I would also like to thank Drs. Billie Thurston, George Colpitts, and Heather Devine for agreeing to serve on my defence committee. Their diverse perspectives provided invaluable insight into the strengths and weaknesses of my analysis and it was their recommendations that brought this study to its final form. This project is similarly indebted to the Department of History at the University of Calgary, which has provided me with funding, support, and a base of operations for the past two years. The many professors I have worked with in this Department have all contributed to my program completion in various ways. The direction of Drs. David Marshall, Paul Stortz, Frank Towers, Ken MacMillan, and Mark Konnert especially prepared me to undertake my research. The funding support of the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and the Eleanor Luxton Foundation was vital to the research that went into this project. A special mention needs to be made to the Stoney Nation, and especially Bill Snow, who opened the door to future collaborative research on similar projects and introduced me to many great resources for incorporation in my research. I would also like to thank my family, especially my mother, for their encouragement and support throughout the writing process. You were my pillar of strength when my own power failed me. And lastly to my partner, Matthew, who has patiently sustained me through every step of the way. ii Table of Contents Introduction: .................................................................................................................................... 1 I.I – Historiography: .................................................................................................................. 18 I.II – Methodology: ................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 1: Nutrition: ..................................................................................................................... 46 1.1 – Subsistence and Spirituality: ............................................................................................ 49 1.2 – The Residential School Diet, pre-1920: ........................................................................... 55 1.3 – Farming and Stock: .......................................................................................................... 59 1.4 - Dietary Supplementation: ................................................................................................. 70 1.5 – Traditional Subsistence to Western Diet: ......................................................................... 78 Conclusion:................................................................................................................................ 79 Chapter 2: Sanitation and Hygiene: .............................................................................................. 83 2.1 – The Early Years, 1890 – 1920:......................................................................................... 85 2.2 – Sanitation, post – 1920: .................................................................................................... 88 2.3 – Drinking Water:................................................................................................................ 93 2.4 – Food Safety: ..................................................................................................................... 99 2.5 – Evidence of Food Borne Illness: .................................................................................... 106 2.6 – Personal Hygiene: .......................................................................................................... 110 2.7 – Lice, Scabies, Impetigo, and Eczema:............................................................................ 112 2.8 – Eye and Ear Infections: .................................................................................................. 119 2.9 – Dental Hygiene:.............................................................................................................. 123 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................. 126 Chapter 3: Illness and Disease: ................................................................................................... 119 3.1 – Disease in Residential Schools, pre-1920: ..................................................................... 122 3.2 – Typhoid Fever: ............................................................................................................... 128 3.3 – Smallpox: ....................................................................................................................... 130 3.4 – Black Measles: ............................................................................................................... 132 3.5 – Measles and German Measles. ....................................................................................... 134 3.6 – Pneumonia: ..................................................................................................................... 137 3.7 – Tuberculosis: .................................................................................................................