University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SPECIES DIVERSITY OF BEDBUGS AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THEIR SURVIVAL BY URIAH ARKO KARIKARI (10305904) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENTOMOLOGY. AFRICAN REGIONAL POSTRGRADUATE PROGRAME IN INSECT SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON JULY 2016 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that except for references to other people’s works which have been duly cited, this work is the result of my original research and that, this thesis has not been presented for a degree elsewhere, either in whole or in part. ............................................................................... URIAH ARKO KARIKARI (STUDENT) 10305904 ............................................................................... DR. FRED ABOAGYE-ANTWI (SUPERVISOR) ............................................................................... DR. BETHEL KWANSA- BENTUM (SUPERVISOR) ………………………………………….. DR. ROSINA KYREMATEN (ARPPIS COORDINATOR) ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To my dear mother Madam Faustina Hawa Yakubu. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation could not have been accomplished without the support and guidance of my supervisors, family and friends. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors Dr. Fred Aboagye – Antwi and Dr. Bethel Kwansa-Bentum for their tutelage, useful suggestions and the encouragement they offered to me when I was faced with challenges throughout the study period. I also extend my sincere appreciation to my mother Madam Hawa Yakubu as well as Madam Elizabeth Opudji, Grace Asare and my family for their support, encouragement and prayers. My profound gratitude goes to all lecturers of African Regional Postgraduate Programme in Insect Science (ARPPIS) who I approached at one point or the other for their academic guidance and support. To Dr. Roberto M. Pereira, an Entomologist at University of Florida, Dr. Ondrej Balvin of Czech University of Life Science Prague and to the various heads of educational institutions who agreed to my collection of bedbugs and or data from their institutions, I say thank you. This work was financially supported by a grant from the 8th University of Ghana Research Fund (U.G.R.F.) [UGRF/8/ILG-051/2014-2015] awarded to Dr. Fred Aboagye-Antwi and was undertaken as part of a two-year project entitled “Characterization of bedbugs (Cimicidae) and assessment of environmental factors that influence their survival in Ghana. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... xiii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. xv CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Study background ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Justification ...................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Main Objectives: ....................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Specific Objectives: .................................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 7 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 7 2.1 History of bedbugs ................................................................................................................ 7 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 Biology of bedbugs .......................................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 Finding and feeding from hosts .................................................................................... 13 2.3 Distribution of bedbugs ................................................................................................... 18 2.4 Global resurgence of bedbugs ......................................................................................... 20 2.5 Clinical Relevance ........................................................................................................... 22 2.5.1 Health effects of bedbug bites ...................................................................................... 23 2.5.2 Social effects of bedbug infestation .............................................................................. 26 2.6 Prevention and control of bedbugs infestation ................................................................ 30 2.6.1 Starvation ...................................................................................................................... 30 2.6.2 Early detection .............................................................................................................. 30 2.6.4.3 Inspection................................................................................................................... 32 2.6.4 Decreasing establishment ............................................................................................. 33 2.6.5 Bedbug traps ................................................................................................................. 33 2.6.6 Nonchemical treatment ................................................................................................. 34 2.6.6.1 Vacuum cleaning ....................................................................................................... 34 2.6.6.2 Heat treatment ............................................................................................................ 35 2.6.6.3 Use of mattress covers ............................................................................................... 36 2.6.7 Chemical treatment ....................................................................................................... 36 2.6.7.1 Insecticide groups for controlling bedbugs ............................................................... 36 2.6.7.1.1 Pyrethroids .............................................................................................................. 37 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.7.1.2 Organophosphates .................................................................................................. 38 2.6.7.1.3 Carbamates ............................................................................................................. 39 2.6.7.1.4 Silicates ................................................................................................................... 40 2.6.7.1.5 Neonicotinoids ........................................................................................................ 41 2.6.7.1.6 Enzymes and cedar oil ............................................................................................ 41 2.6.7.1.7 Insects Growth Regulators (IGRs) ......................................................................... 42 2.6.7.2 Formulation and application methods of the chemicals ............................................ 42 2.6.7.2.1 Liquid application ................................................................................................... 43 2.6.7.2.2 Insecticidal Paint..................................................................................................... 44 2.6.7.2.3 Aerosol.................................................................................................................... 44 2.6.7.2.4 Dust ......................................................................................................................... 45 2.6.7.5 Insecticidal Resistance ............................................................................................... 45 2.7 Effect of water loss on bedbugs ....................................................................................... 46 2.8 Morphological identification of bedbugs ........................................................................ 47 2.9 Molecular characteristics of bedbugs .............................................................................