TRANSNATIONAL FREEDOM MOVEMENTS: A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN LEAGUE FOR PUERTO RICO INDEPENDENCE, 1944-1950 A Thesis by MANUEL ANTONIO GRAJALES, II Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University-Commerce in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS August 2015 TRANSNATIONAL FREEDOM MOVEMENTS: A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN LEAGUE FOR PUERTO RICAN INDEPENDENCE, 1944-1950 A Thesis by MANUEL ANTONIO GRAJALES, II Approved by: Advisor: Jessica Brannon-Wranosky Committee: William F. Kuracina Eugene Mark Moreno Head of Department: Judy A. Ford Dean of the College: Salvatore Attardo Dean of Graduate Studies: Arlene Horne iii Copyright © 2015 Manuel Antonio Grajales II iv ABSTRACT TRANSNATIONAL FREEDOM MOVEMENTS: A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN LEAGUE FOR PUERTO RICO INDEPENDENCE, 1944-1950 Manuel Grajales, MA Texas A&M University-Commerce, 2015 Advisor: Jessica Brannon-Wranosky, PhD A meeting in 1943 between Puerto Rican nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos and a group of U.S. pacifists initiated a relationship built on shared opposition to global imperialism. The association centered on the status of Puerto Rico as a colonial possession of the United States. The nationalists argued that Puerto Rico the island’s definition as a U.S. possession violated their sovereignty and called for aggressive resistance against the United States after attempting to initiate change through the electoral process in 1930. Campos developed his brand of nationalism through collaborations with independence activists from India and Ireland while a student at Harvard. Despite the Puerto Rican nationalists’ rhetorically aggressive stance against U.S. imperialism, conversation occurred with groups of Americans who disapproved of their country’s imperial objective. Despite differences in culture, religion, and ideology, a common transnational connection allowed these groups to establish a dialogue about the issue of imperialism. The U.S. pacifists, inspired by Mohandas K. Gandhi and the Free India movement, studied the tenants of Gandhi’s non-violent philosophy employed by the U.S. civil rights movement during the 1940s and 1950s. v Connections to India and the pacifist community’s arguments against imperialism led to collaboration between both groups. The creation of the American League for Puerto Rico Independence in 1944 exemplified the significance of this transnational connection. From establishment in 1944 until disbandment in 1950, the purpose of this group of American citizens was to articulate complaints about colonialism to the United States government and the United Nations. The contribution of women within the organization played a significant factor, highlighted by the leadership role of ALPRI secretary Ruth Reynolds. Although the ALPRI and the NP worked to combat regional imperialism, both organizations operated as separate entities and attempted to craft the message for the cause. This thesis investigates the collaboration between the two groups and examines whose vision of independence eventually dominated the narrative. This study relies on analysis of archival collections, including the papers of civil rights leader James Farmer and a microfilmed collection of ALPRI secretary Ruth Reynolds. In addition, other pacifist collections, FBI files, and newspaper articles were consulted. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The development and completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support of my professors, my friends and family, and fellow graduate students. I would like to thank the professors in the Department of History at Texas A&M University-Commerce for their guidance in my professional development as an aspiring historian, as well as my personal development through my continued growth as a person. I owe a lot to the professors who advised me during the process of my thesis. I am eternally grateful to Dr. Jessica Wranosky, my advisor, for the time she invested in a project that mushroomed into something bigger. She pushed me when I needed to be pushed, assisted me in trials I faced on a professional and personal level, and gave me the tools to succeed. Dr. William Kuracina provided me with in depth conversation on the nuances of global imperialism, colonial structures, but also conversations about different facets of academia and life. Dr. Mark Moreno provided me with additional insight on Latin America that I had not considered, as well as encouragement to stay active in the field of History. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Sharon Kowalsky for her mentorship and encouragement, both when I was an undergraduate student and when I worked as her GA. Her advice and encouragement were always appreciated. I would also like to thank Dr. Robert G. Rodriguez from the Political Science Department for expanding my knowledge base of Latin America and providing me the content and knowledge I lacked. I would also like to thank the Texas A&M University-Commerce for providing me the opportunity to achieve my academic goals. During my time in graduate school, my colleagues have been a source of encouragement and I thank them for their friendship, advice, and humor. Special thanks to Benjamin Williams, Allison Faber, and Jill Mobley for the experiences we shared, the times we acted as soundboards vii for one another’s projects, and your friendship in general. My family is always a source of inspiration for me. They encouraged my love of history through pushing me to read at an early age. My father and maternal grandmother always pushed for me to learn my cultural history, to have an appreciation of my culture. A special thanks to my mother, for always supporting me and letting me know that she was proud of my pursuits. My brother, who always helped me unwind during tough times through sharing a meal, playing video games, or just talking about literature and history. I would like to thank my mother and father in law for their support of my endeavors and encouraging me to go as far as I can. Most importantly, I would like to thank my wife Heather. She has acted as a technical editor at times and has been my number one fan through my return to college. Even when we fell on hard times, she did not want me to quit. I thank her for her love, support, and being my wife. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... ix ABBREVIATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS ................................................................................x CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 2. ESTABLISHMENT OF TRANSNATIONAL COMMUNICATION, 1930-1943 ....27 3. LAUNCH OF THE AMERICAN LEAGUE FOR PUERTO RICO INDEPENDENCE, 1944-1947 ....................................................................................63 4. THE FALL OF ALPRI, 1948-1950 .............................................................................99 5. AFTERWARD & CONCLUSION ..........................................................................128 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................141 VITA ..........................................................................................................................................152 ix LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. Chart of Interactions between Civil Rights and Independence Organizations ...............6 x ABBREVIATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS ACLU American Civil Liberties Union ALPRI American League for Puerto Rico Independence, 1944-1950 APRI Americans for Puerto Rico Independence, 1953-1980s CO Conscientious Objector CORE Congress for Racial Equality FALN Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional F. B. I Federal Bureau of Investigation FOR Fellowship of Reconciliation MPI Movimiento Pro Independencia NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NP Puerto Rican Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista de Puertorriqueña) PPD Puerto Rican Popular Democratic Party (Partido Popular de Democrático) PIP Puerto Rican Independence Party (Partido Independencia de Puertorriquena UN United Nations UPR Unionist Party (Partido Unionista de Puertorriquena) YLP Young Lords Party 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Throughout the early twentieth century, the United States government designated Puerto Rico as a territory under a colonial government and enacted economic reforms that promoted U.S. business interests. After the U.S. acquired former Spanish colonies in North America and the Pacific at the conclusion of the Spanish American War in 1898, turmoil arose among the populace. Puerto Rico expected to gain independence in a similar arrangement to Cuba after U.S. mobilization against Spain yet was placed under U.S. colonial control, similar to the Philippines. The case of Puerto Rico’s relationship with the United States highlights the tensions of a small country that anticipated independence but still required U.S. economic aid to remain solvent. As conflict over Puerto Rican independence grew, nationalist and transnational alliances formed and took sides in the growing debates. What happened during these processes shaped both the ongoing debates about the meaning of Puerto Rican independence and the lives of all those involved. Although the Jones Act of 1917 conferred U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans, political and geographical restrictions within the act made the definition of residency problematic. The rise of the U.S. as an imperial