“REPRESENTATION AND USE OF INDIGENOUS HERITAGE CONSTRUCTS” Implications for the quality and relevance of heritage education in post colonial southern Africa A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION of RHODES UNIVERSITY by CRYTON ZAZU Supervisors: Professor Heila Lotz-Sisitka and Professor Rob O’ Donoghue DECEMBER 2012 Abstract This study explores representation and use of indigenous heritage constructs with a view to identifying implications thereof for the quality and relevance of heritage education practices in post colonial southern Africa. Framed within a critical hermeneutic research paradigm under-laboured by critical realist ontology, the study was conducted using a multiple case study research design. The data collection protocol was three-phased, starting with a process of contextual profiling, within which insights were gained into discourses shaping the constitution and orientation of heritage education practices at the Albany Museum in South Africa, the Great Zimbabwe Monument in Zimbabwe and the Supa Ngwao Museum in Botswana. The second phase of data collection entailed modelling workshops in which educators engaged in discussion around the status of heritage education in post apartheid South Africa. This highlighted, through modelled lessons, some of the tensions, challenges and implications for working with notions of social transformation and inclusivity in heritage education. The third phase of data collection involved in-depth interviews. Twelve purposively selected research participants were interviewed between 2010 and 2011. Data generated across the study was processed and subjected to different levels of critical discourse analysis. Besides noting how heritage education in post colonial southern Africa is poorly framed and under-researched, this study revealed that current forms of representing indigenous heritage constructs are influenced more by socio-political discourses than the need to protect and conserve local heritage resources. The study also noted that the observed heritage education practices are oriented more towards addressing issues related to marginalisation and alienation of indigenous cultures and practices, than enhancing learners’ agency to manage and utilise local heritage resources in a more sustainable ways. Based on these findings the study recommends re-positioning heritage education within the framework of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). ESD acknowledges both issues of social justice and the dialectical interplay between nature and culture; as such, it may allow for representation and use of indigenous heritage constructs in ways that expand current political orientations to include sustainability as an additional objective of heritage education. Given that little research focusing on heritage education has been undertaken within southern Africa, the findings of this study provide a basis upon which future research may emerge. i Acknowledgements This study would not have been completed without the assistance, support and encouragement of a number of people and institutions. I acknowledge the intellectual and supervision support received from my two supervisors, Professor Rob O’ Donoghue and Professor Heila Lotz-Sisitka. These two deserve special mention for their unwavering support throughout the research journey. I also want to acknowledge the financial support provided by the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA). Through this support I was able to conduct field trips, attend conferences and participate in workshops, all of which broadened my understanding of heritage management and education as a sector-specific field of practice. To SAHRA’s Thanduxolo Lungile, I say “siyabonga kakulu Tate” for both being a research colleague, co-driver on field visits and a host at the Grahamstown offices. To Ms Sibongile van Damme Masuku, former Chief Executive Officer of SAHRA, and all the Heads of Units I say many thanks for your support and encouragement. Then I must also thank the group of critical friends that I worked with at the Environmental Learning Research Centre (ELRC) at Rhodes University. These included Daniel Sabai, Charles Chikunda, Million Belay, Mirrella Schwinge, Tichaona Pesanayi, Caleb Mandikonza, Dick Kachilonda and Injairu Kulundu. My gratitude also goes to ELRC support staff, notably Sisi Gladys, for helping with too many things to mention. Thanks to Sashay Armstrong for all her administrative support and ensuring that my stay in Grahamstown was soundly supported. I owe the completion of this study to those that came before me, and these are previous Environmental Education and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) researchers like Soul Shava and Tsepo Mokuku. Their intellectual guidance and appraisals were very valuable. I sincerely want to thank Kim Ward for editing the thesis emerging from this study. Finally I am indebted to the following family members: Nyasha, Kudakwashe and Tanaka Zazu for their unconditional support and love throughout the three years. I also thank Robson Kapururira, ‘a great cousin brother’, Assan Mkwananzi, ‘a close friend and brother’, and the Chamboko and Matende families for their encouragement, materials and moral support. ii List of Acronyms BNCC Botswana National Cultural Council CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement CBNRM Community Based Natural Resources Management CDA Critical Discourse Analysis DAC Department of Arts and Culture DACST Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology EE Environmental Education ESD Education for Sustainable Development HESD Heritage Education for Sustainable Development ICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites IKS Indigenous knowledge systems IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature LSM Learning Support Material NAC National Art Council NHC National Heritage Council NHRA National Heritage Resources Act no. 25 of 1999 NMM National Museums and Monuments NMMAG National Museum, Monuments and Art Gallery NMMZ National Museums and Monument of Zimbabwe NWPA National Parks and Wildlife Authority PHRAs Provincial Heritage Resources Authorities SADC Southern Africa Development Community SAGN South African Geographical Names SAGNC South African Geographical Names Council SAHRA South African Heritage Resources Agency SEEP Sebakwe Environmental Education Programme UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation iii DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my late father, the spirit medium of Nyanhewe-son of Nyatsimba Mutota, last known King of Munhumutapa and Great Zimbabwe Empire. iv List of Tables Table 1 Shifting trends in heritage perceptions and heritage education 38 approaches Table 2 Summary of research phases, data collection protocols and 80 objectives Table 3 Summary of documents reviewed 83 Table 4 Profiles of persons interviewed 91 Table 5 Summary of data collected and processed 93 Table 6 Summary of critical discourse analysis 98 List of Figures Figure 1 Adapted map of southern Africa region 3 Figure 2 The interaction between tangible and intangible heritage and 32 how this influences the way heritage is constructed Figure 3 Collection of pottery made by local women at Great 33 Zimbabwe cultural village Figure 4 Framework for the critical discourse analysis of learning 105 support materials Figure 5 Diagrammatic representations of heritage institutions in 115 post apartheid South Africa Figure 6 AmaXhosa calabash and pottery exhibited at the 124 Albany History Museum Figure 7 Map showing distribution of heritage sites in Zimbabwe 135 Figure 8 The traditional male pot kept at the Natural History Museum 140 Figure 9 The Shona-Karanga cultural village – a socio-cultural and 143 economic landscape Figure 10 Culture huts at Ruvimbo primary school in Zimbabwe and 153 some of the cultural heritage objects displayed in the huts Figure 11 Map of Botswana showing the country’s heritage sites, 156 national parks and game reserves Figure 12 Rock Art paintings at Tsodilo, Botswana 157 Figure 13 Pictures of some cultural practices observed in Botswana 158 Basarwa traditional dress, now a legally protected intangible 164 v Figure 14 heritage resource in contemporary Botswana Figure 15 Part of the Mapoka Photo Cultural Exhibition at Supa Ngwao 170 Museum, in Francis Town Figure 16 The changing pages of History textbooks 177 Figure 17 Part of the current collection of cultural objects exhibited at 182 Supa Ngwao Museum List of Boxes Box 1 Discourse and policy: The case of post apartheid South Africa 99 Box 2 Influence of policy discourses on heritage management 102 practices Box 3 Discourses influencing heritage education practices 103 Box 4 Some of the educational activities at Albany Museum 125 Box 5 Preamble to Cultural Policy of 2004, Zimbabwe 138 Box 6 Motswedi waDitso investigates a case of “development versus 168 culture” Box 7 Role of Tsodilo Site museum 171 Box 8 History of Great Zimbabwe resolved 180 Box 9 Extract from Albany Museum educational programme 184 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Acknowledgements ii List of Acronyms iii Dedication iv List of Tables List of Figures v List of Boxes v vi CHAPTER 1 – ORIENTATION TO STUDY Introduction 1 1.1 Personal biography 1 1.2 The Research Context: Post colonial southern Africa 2 1.2.1 Historical overview of heritage discourses in post colonial southern 3 Africa 1.3 Heritage education