View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives UNIVERSITY OF OSLO FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES TIK Centre for technology, innovation and culture P.O. BOX 1108 Blindern N-0317 OSLO Norway http://www.tik.uio.no TIK-MA-THESIS The Social Construction of Digital Recorded Music: a Preliminary Map Brede Trollsås 2010 Word count: 36691 Brede Trollsås E-mail: [email protected] University of Oslo Technology, Innovation and Knowledge Supervisor: Atle Hauge, Østlandsforskning 1 Abstract Following the advent of digital media, recorded music has been subject to radical changes in recent years – both technologically and economically. Formerly the dominant sound carrier, the CD is experiencing plummeting sales; while a new format, the digital music file, is on the rise. But digital files are easily shared over the Internet; and as the industry struggles to adjust its business models to the new realities of the recorded music market, file sharers are disseminating music across both spatial and legal borders. At the heart of these developments are the technological manifestations which recorded music takes. Using theory from Science and Technology Studies (STS), this thesis proposes that the development of technology must be understood as a result of social processes, and that such processes are in turn affected by the technology itself. Through a literature review and a number of qualitative interviews, parties that are identified as central to shaping its technology are identified; specifically, the recorded music industry, music consumers, legislative and law enforcing government, and media are found to be central groups. Representatives of these groups are approached to express their values and opinions towards the technological artefact of recorded music, both as a product and as a cultural commodity. Particular emphasis is put on these parties’ views on file sharing. Using the Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) theorem as a foundation, the thesis reveals that relevant actors express strongly heterogeneous opinions towards the various manifestations of recorded music, and that its technological development is exposed to very disparate social influences. At the same time, the findings discredit the notion that shared values and opinions are easily sorted into well-defined social groups, as they are currently treated in much academic literature. It is also shown that the distribution of power to influence recorded music technology is changing among relevant actors; away from record companies, and towards consumers of music and Internet Service Providers (ISPs). 2 3 Table of contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 2 Table of contents ................................................................................................................ 4 List of abbreviations and models ....................................................................................... 5 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 6 1.1 A definition of central terms .................................................................................. 8 2. Aim and rationale of the study...................................................................................... 10 2.1 Research questions............................................................................................... 11 2.2 A new paradigm? – Music’s recent history.......................................................... 12 2.3 Previous studies on illegal copying, digital music, and file sharing .................... 15 2.4 Literature Criticism.............................................................................................. 19 3. Theoretical framework .................................................................................................. 22 3.1 The technological characteristics of digital music ............................................... 22 3.2 Service or product? The schizophrenia of digital music ...................................... 26 3.3 The politics of artefacts........................................................................................ 28 3.4 Modelling music: How to understand the shaping of digital music..................... 29 3.5 Where the voices sound........................................................................................ 33 3.6 Adjusted research questions................................................................................. 34 4. Research Design.............................................................................................................. 35 4.1 Implications of the methodology - induction ....................................................... 37 4.2 Implications of the methodology – expanding the music scene........................... 39 4.3 Population and Sample......................................................................................... 40 4.4 Selection of interviewees: pre-defined actors and groups.................................... 41 4.5 Organizations included in the study..................................................................... 45 4.6 Design and implementation of interviews............................................................ 46 4.7 What They Say – Interpretation of language and terms....................................... 47 5. Analysis: the social construction of digital music........................................................ 49 5.1 Setting the scene....................................................................................................... 49 5.1.1 Realism and idealism – various takes on the music market malady ................ 49 5.1.2 Relevant actors and social groups – the actors’ own segmentation ................. 56 5.1.3 ‘Competing with free’ – perceived problems in the digital market ................. 62 5.1.4 A painful transition - discussion on perceived problems ................................. 67 5.1.5 Investigating the industry/user taxonomy ........................................................ 69 5.2 How does it feel? Going in-depth on music and its pre-determined influencers .. 77 5.2.2 Passing judgement over pre-defined groups .................................................... 79 5.2.2.a Consumers of digital music, and file sharers ................................................... 79 5.2.2.b Record companies............................................................................................ 83 5.2.2.c Media coverage................................................................................................ 87 5.2.2.d Legislation........................................................................................................ 91 5.2.3 Summary: The group group song..................................................................... 95 5.3 Closure – a stable technology................................................................................... 96 5.3.1 Closing time: Actors’ quest for technological change ................................... 102 5.3.2 The times they are a-changing – new constellations of power ...................... 110 6. Conclusion..................................................................................................................... 117 6.1 Completeness and reliability of the study .......................................................... 118 6.2 Before and after: Social maps of the music market ........................................... 119 6.3 Closing up – stabilization of digital recorded music.......................................... 123 6.4 The way forward – a personal note .................................................................... 124 References ...................................................................................................................... 126 4 List of abbreviations BMG: Bertelsmann Music Group CD: Compact Disc DRM: Digital Rights Management DVD: Digital Versatile Disc (or similar) EFN: Elektronisk Forpost Norge EMI: Electric & Musical Industries, Ltd. FONO: The Association of Norwegian Record Companies IFPI: International Federation of the Phonographic Industry IPR: Intellectual Property Rights ISP: Internet Service Provider LP: Long-Playing Record (vinyl 331/3 rpm. record) MC: Music Cassette (cassette tape) Mp3: MPEG Audio Layer-3 NCB: Nordic Copyright Bureau TONO: The Norwegian Performing Rights Society URL: Uniform Resource Locator WMA: Windows Media Audio List of models Model 1: Organization of the popular music industry 21 Model 2: Annual sales statistics by sound carrier 23 5 Nothing essential happens in the absence of noise. – Jaques Attali, Noise 1. Introduction Over the past century, the economics of music has grown increasingly interdependent with music as a tangible asset – with the production, distribution and sale of its physical manifestations at the core of its business. From the introduction of the first gramophones, an array of playback formats has seen the light of day; some failing miserably, others causing staggering changes for industry actors through their success. The records, tapes, and discs have always compelled standardization, and rarely have competing formats lived in harmony for long1. But a common feature has been their tangibility2, as something to be traded hand to hand, bought, wrapped, and paid