Human–Wildlife Interactions 12(2):220–232, Fall 2018 • digitalcommons.usu.edu/hwi Toward sustainable conservation and management of human–wildlife interactions in the Mmadinare Region of Botswana: villagers’ perceptions on challenges and prospects Oitshepile MmaB Modise, Department of Adult Education, University of Botswana, 4775 Notwane Rd., Gaborone, Botswana [email protected] Rebecca Nthogo Lekoko, Department of Adult Education, University of Botswana, 4775 Notwane Rd., Gaborone, Botswana Olekae Tsompi Thakadu, Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, 8173 Shorobe Rd., Sexaxa, Maun, Botswana Masego Ayo Mpotokwane, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Botswana, 4775 Notwane Rd., Gaborone, Botswana Abstract: Human–wildlife conflicts are increasing globally. The increase in conflicts has been attributed to growing human and wildlife populations and a per capita increase in the consumption of natural resources. In Botswana, conflicts between humans and elephants (Loxodonta africana) are increasing. The growing human population (2.2 million) is encroaching on the animals’ already restricted range. Concomitantly, more elephants are adversely affecting arable agriculture production. To better understand the magnitude and intensity of human–wildlife interactions with elephants and other native wildlife species in Botswana, we collected data through community forum conducted July 17–18, 2017 at a “Kgotla” meeting in Mmadinare, a village in the Central District of Botswana. Mmadinare has experienced increased human–wildlife conflicts, mainly related to elephants. TheKgotla is the traditional community meeting place in Botswana villages. The Kgotla provides for freedom of expression, transparent debate, officialdom, and is the official seat for the village leaders. Issues discussed at the Kgotla are highly regarded, and individuals who have discussions do so seriously. Although the forum was our main data collection method, we also used personal anecdotes that communicated participants’ emotional encounters with elephants, their helplessness to deal with elephants, failure of traditional management approaches, and their concerns regarding the lack of government support. The research team members and forum participants who had been impacted most by the wildlife also visited the affected areas. Despite the increasing damage, the community emphasized that harmonious coexistence is desirable and sustainable. One strategy highlighted to lead to harmonious living with elephants was the establishment of a wildlife educational park. The option was attractive because the community expressed strong ownership of the concept. Their perspectives reinforced the gravity and urgency of the situation and the importance of working out intentional strategies to positively direct and manage human–wildlife interactions. Key words: Botswana, conservation strategies, human–wildlife coexistence, human–wildlife interaction, Kgotla meeting, Loxodonta africana, partnerships, storytelling Humans and wildlife have interacted for 2000, Conover 2001). The former is caused as long as humans have been in existence; they by constricting wildlife habitats due to the have shared the same landscapes and resources effects of the latter, consequently resulting in (Sitati et al. 2005). However, in some instances competition of resources. and especially where the interactions are not well Studies have also extensively documented the managed, such interactions have led to conflict. impacts of human–wildlife conflicts on socio- The causes of human–wildlife conflicts are economic livelihoods of people (Conover et al. documented in literature, including expansion 1995, Dickman 2010, Barua et al. 2013, Khumalo of human development (e.g., settlements) into and Yung 2015). The conflict includes property wildlife habitats and the intrusion of wildlife losses, attacks on humans, crops and livestock species in human settlements (Messmer losses, and disease transmission to livestock or Villager perceptions in Botswana • Modise et al. 221 humans (Conover et al. 1995, Treves et al. 2006, Background and study context Dickman 2010). The discussion of human–wildlife conflict Many complementary definitions of human– continues to receive attention especially as wildlife conflicts have been given in the human and animal populations increase literature. Messmer (2000) applied the term to (Makindi et al. 2014). Globally, Sripal (2015) any situation that involved negative interactions cites the U.S. Census Bureau (2002) to indicate between humans and wildlife. These conflicts that human population of the earth exceeds 6 can either be real or perceived, economic or billion and is growing at an estimated rate of aesthetic, social or political. As such, human– 1.2% per year. This growth is said to be the root wildlife conflicts may also encompass damages of increased human–wildlife encounters, but to the individual that result from federal, state, or the problem is localized rather than general. local wildlife legislation, regulations, or policies Africa in general houses the world’s largest that are designed to protect or conserve wildlife, concentrations of wild animals, both in density public benefits, and individual property rights and diversity (Seoraj-Pillai and Pillay 2017). (Messmer 2000). Nyhus (2016) summarized This concentration directs more research studies these definitions by stating that “human– toward the area of human–wildlife interaction. wildlife conflict is commonly described as It has also given Africa the important global conflict that occurs between people and wildlife; role of several wildlife species protection. as actions by humans or wildlife that have an While some studies focused on the attitudes adverse effect on the other; as threats posed by held by local people toward wildlife (Treves wildlife to human life, economic security, or and Naughton-Treves 2005), others explored recreation; or perceptions that wildlife threatens means or strategies of dealing with this type human safety, health, food, and property.” of interaction. Still others have documented Others indicated a blending of concepts such the impacts of human–wildlife conflicts on the as human–wildlife coexistence, human-human socioeconomic livelihoods of people (Barua et al. conflicts, conservation conflicts, and human– 2013, Khumalo and Yung 2015). A recent study wildlife interaction proposed in the literature, has shown that there are other hidden costs of though regarded as passing blame, mostly on human–wildlife conflict such as the psycho- wildlife (Hill 2015). social effects (Bond and Mkutu 2018), and The use of the term human–wildlife conflicts to these are often not factored into compensation define the nature of human–wildlife interactions initiatives. Mitigation measures indicated can be problematic, as it exacerbates rather in literature include technical approaches, than solves the problem (Redpath et al. 2014). biophysical measures (e.g., killing problem Dickman (2010) and Madden and McQuinn animals, fencing), policy and legislative (2014) argue that framing human–wildlife frameworks (e.g., monetary compensation, law interactions from the conflict perspective limits enforcement), and participatory approaches the array of solutions that can be used to address (Treves et al. 2006, Dickman 2010, Redpath et al. it. It can, for example, constrain the achievement 2014, Hill 2015, Hoare 2015, Yurco et al. 2017). of conservation-related goals as attention Though notable advances have been achieved would be centered on reducing negative in this area of research, additional detailed interactions rather than on increasing positive studies are necessary. behaviors toward wildlife (Dickman 2010). The As significant local communities in Africa literature then suggests softening of terms that still rely on subsistence agriculture, studies that communicate negativity and moving toward explore how arable and pastoral farming are those that emphasize coexistence. In support, affected by wildlife like elephants (Loxodonta Madden (2004) noted that the idea of exploring africana; Figure 1) and predators such as hyenas coexistence and tolerance, as opposed to conflict, (Crocuta crocuta), leopards (Panthera pardus), is progressive. Coexistence takes place when and lions (Panthera leo) are important. In the the interests of humans and wildlife are both northern part of Botswana, for example, and satisfied or when a compromise is negotiated to especially the Ngamiland District, the elephant allow the existence of both humans and wildlife and buffalo (Syncerus caffer) are subjects of (Frank 2016). concern (Sello 2012, Vanderpost 2007, Gumbo 222 Human–Wildlife Interactions 12(2) conservationists and politicians com- mend the growing figures of elephant population in Botswana, agrarians and inhabitants of northern Botswana battle with coexisting with elephants that destroy crops and impede livelihoods. Evidence suggests that >70% of the elephant population is found outside of protected conservation areas (Blanc 2007). This population poses a threat to human property (boreholes, fences, and crops), and could cause human death and injuries (Lamarque et al. 2009). Carnivore species such as lions are Figure 1. Increasing human and elephant (Loxodonta also a threat to pastoral farmers, as africana) populations are on a collision course in Botswana, they tend to kill domestic livestock Africa as humans continue to encroach on a restricting elephant range. University faculty and villagers