CORRUPTION IN ZIMBABWE: AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLES OF THE STATE AND CIVIL SOCIETY IN COMBATING CORRUPTION BY STEPHEN MOYO A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire March 2014 Student declaration I, Stephen Moyo declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution. I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work Signature of candidate …………………………………………. Type of award Doctor of Philosophy School Education and Social Sciences i Abstract This thesis employs the theory of political economy to examine the roles of the state and civil society in combating corruption in Zimbabwe. The thesis initially investigates whether and how the state-civil society relation influences or impedes Anti-Corruption management, and subsequently examines strategies deployed by the state and civil society organisations (CSOs) to combat corruption. Particular attention is paid to the role and impact of the state in designing and implementing Anti-Corruption policies, and the role civil society plays in influencing Anti-Corruption legislation and policy implementation. This study adopts the World Bank conceptualisation of corruption and Transparency International‟s (TI) Corruption Perception Index (CPI) as part of the guiding framework. In-depth interviews with fifty eight key informants drawn from different levels within the government and civil society in Zimbabwe were conducted between October and February, 2012. The interviews focused on obtaining the different actors‟ perspective on how corruption in Zimbabwe was being produced and reinforced, and the roles played by the different actors in its perpetuation or curtailment. Quantitative data is used to support and triangulate some of the claims raised. The findings of this thesis indicate that the prevalence of corruption in Zimbabwe is chiefly a consequence of a lack of political will to address the problem, and a myriad of complex factors. This reasons with the argument that the top political elite are perceived to be the primary beneficiaries of corruption. Thus, while there are concrete and noticeable developments in ii establishing the legal and constitutional framework to fight corruption, there is a continued absence of a clear demonstration of political will to fight corruption. The thesis argues that political leadership and commitment to fight corruption is one of the most fundamental preconditions for success in the fight against it. Secondly, weak institutions have contributed to the proliferation of corruption in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has multiple Anti- Corruption initiatives shared between the state and civil society (to a limited extent) spearheaded by the Zimbabwe Anti-Corruption Commission (ZACC) and Transparency International-Zimbabwe (TI-Z). However, initiatives have achieved limited success in alleviating corruption as demonstrated by current data suggesting endemic corruption in Zimbabwe. While civil society may be seen as lacking the policy and political space to articulate and influence policy formulation and implementation, it is equally important to understand the historical background between civil society and the state which has produced such an outcome, and how malpractices within CSOs in some cases has hindered progress in executing its mandate. Anti-Corruption strategies are effective when they are participative and engaging of all stakeholders within society, but ultimately it is the level of power and ability to exercise agency that determines any real change. In the context of Zimbabwe, such all-inclusiveness has entailed building coalitions among stakeholders such as the state, civil society organisations, private sector and the general public in order to embolden the sustainability of strategies. iii Table of contents Student declaration...............................................................................................................i Abstract .................................................................................................................................ii Table of contents ................................................................................................................ iv List of Figures and Tables ................................................................................................ vii Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................ viii Appendices ........................................................................................................................... x List of Abbreviations............................................................................................................ xi Chapter 1.............................................................................................................................. 1 COMBATING CORRUPTION IN ZIMBABWE ............................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Statement of the problem............................................................................................ 2 1.2 Defining corruption ....................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Relevance of the Study ............................................................................................. 15 1.7 Objectives of the study .............................................................................................. 16 1.8 Research Questions.......................................................................................................17 1.8.1 Methodological approach ...................................................................................... 18 1.9 Overview of the Study ............................................................................................... 18 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................... 21 LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE STATE, CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE PARADOX OF CORRUPTION CONTROL IN ZIMBABWE .......................................... 21 2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 21 2.3 An assessment of the political economy of corruption in Zimbabwe ................. 22 2.3.1 Spoils politics: The state and economic distribution .................................................27 2.3.2 Corruption in state institutions in Zimbabwe......................................................34 2.3.3 Forms and typologies of Corruption prevalent in Zimbabwe.............................42 2.3.3.1 Systemic or endemic corruption in Zimbabwe .................................... 51 2.3.3.2 Grand and political corruption in Zimbabwe........................................ 57 2.3.3.3 Bureaucratic or Petty Corruption in Zimbabwe..................................................60 2.4 An assessment of civil society in Zimbabwe ..................................................... 64 2.5 The state and civil society: Complexities of corruption control in Zimbabwe........................................................................................................................... 76 2.6 An assessment of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes (ESAP) and its implications for corruption .................................................................... 83 iv 2.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 89 Chapter 3............................................................................................................................ 92 RESEARCH PARADIGMS .............................................................................................. 92 3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 92 3.2 Methodological Perspective...................................................................................... 93 3.3 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 99 3.3.1 The case study approach .......................................................................................100 3.3.1.1 Limitations of a Case Study Approach............................................... 102 3.3.2 Sampling...........................................................................................................104 3.3.3 Data collection instruments ..............................................................................107 3.3.3.1 Semi-structured interviews .................................................................. 108 3.3.3.2 Document analysis ................................................................................ 112 3.3.3.3 Observation ............................................................................................ 113 3.4 Fieldwork Reflections .......................................................................................... 115 Chapter 4.........................................................................................................................