THE NEW NAVY AND AMERICA'S RISE AS A WORLD POWER, 1880-1919 A Report of a Senior Study by Michael Arpino Major: History Maryville College Spring Term, 2012 Date approved ____________, by _______________________ Faculty Supervisor Date approved ____________, by _______________________ Division Chair Abstract The years between 1880 and 1919 witnessed the rise of the United States as a respected world power driven by a world class New Navy. This thesis provides a survey of historical events outlining this development set against the greater context of national and international events during this period. By tracing the course of these events from the pre-history of the New Navy, through the Spanish-American War, to the First World War and beyond, this thesis demonstrates the application of Mahanian principles to Naval history and America's emergence as a power. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction The Establishment of the United States Navy and its Role 1 Chapter I The Genesis of the New Navy and Alfred Mahan 4 Chapter II The Spearhead of American Imperialism 21 Chapter III Big Stick Diplomacy and the Seeds of the American Superpower 34 Conclusion Mahan's Enduring Specter: Trade, Warfare, and the Role of the Navy into the Future 54 Bibliography 59 INTRODUCTION THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY AND ITS ROLE On August 26, 1775, amid the background of Revolution and War that was spreading across the colonies, the Rhode Island General Assembly recorded their decision to commission a fleet of ships to “preserv[e]... the lives, liberties, and property of the good people of these Colonies.”1 The first ship to fill this role had been hired two days previously. Dubbed Hannah and outfitted with four small cannons and a few swivel guns, the schooner was paid for by George Washington himself. The motivation to commission Hannah and the ships that followed her was primarily commercial in nature. As part of the greater context of the Revolutionary War, frigates of the British Royal Navy had been harassing smuggler and merchant ships with ties to the colonial economies. Angered by this, Rhode Islanders and citizens of the other colonies knew that the most effective way to protect their trade interests was to build armed ships to discourage harassment by the British and to claim prizes, if possible.2 As the War progressed, the individual colonies consolidated their armed ships to form the Continental Navy which boldly fought against the Royal Navy - the most awesome naval force the world had ever seen at that point. Over the course of the War to its end, the Continental Navy birthed larger-than-life heroes with household names such as John Paul Jones, and legendary ships like the USS Constitution came to personify the plucky fighting spirit of the fledgling nation. From this point, the embryonic United States Navy would defend the nation’s trade interests against Barbary pirates and later the French in the Quasi-War before facing the British blockades once again and eventually engaging them in outright naval combat in the War of 1812. Over the next fifty years, the United States Navy continued to pen its early illustrious history as the instrument of American defense and local 1 Stephen Howarth, To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy 1775-1991 (New York: Random House, 1991), 6. 2 Ibid., 7. influence until the Civil War when her own ships were turned against each other. What followed was a veritable dark age for the United States Navy which couldn’t have come at a more historically significant time. The latter part of the 19th century was a crucial transitional period for the United States. The country was still perceived as a backwater of the world scene. Isolated on its own continent with a decrepit navy and without any imperial possessions of its own, the United States was in no position to compete with the great powers of Europe economically or militarily. In just a few short years, however, the United States began a shift that would lead the nation on a path to renewal, respectability, and later, to a position as a world power, ready to dictate foreign policy across the globe. What led the United States on this path? The answer lies in the history of the creation of the New Navy in the 1880s and the wave of economic, military, and geopolitical success that followed into the twentieth century. It was at this pivotal point in American history that the transformation of the United States as a nation was mirrored in the evolution of its Navy and vice versa. From the ashes of the Civil War, a new nation with vigorous aspirations arose against a backdrop of international arms races and colonialism, and these aspirations were met through the rapid and ongoing development of the New Navy that occurred during this period. Essentially, America’s rise between the 1880’s and the end of the First World War in 1919 which set the stage for the nation’s emergence as a superpower at the end of the Second was primarily driven by the advantages this naval development provided. These developments were embarked upon in preparation for and in response to three principles of naval functioning which recurred in America’s conflicts during this period. These three principles are as follows: 1. The necessity of a navy to protect trade interests. 2. The effectiveness of a navy in projecting power, both hard and soft, within a nation’s sphere of influence and abroad. 3. The use of a navy in setting and defeating blockades. These three principles were codified in the publication of Alfred Mahan’s The Influence of Sea Power upon History, a work which was hugely influential in the various reform and modernization efforts that characterized the Navy’s development from 1880 onward. In consideration of this, two questions arise. First, how important were these three principles in affecting the birth and rise of the New Navy? Secondly, does the history of the United States Navy vindicate Mahan’s theses? There is no question that Mahan’s concepts were extremely influential in the development of the Navy. What I am investigating, essentially, is to what effect they were applied and endured during these critical years in American Naval history, and in a broader sense, how the developments they inspired affected the growth of the nation as a whole. The period from 1880 or so to 1919 can be divided into three rather distinct epochs which both spurred and tested the Navy’s development. The first is the initial establishment of the New Navy and its early utilization. The second marks the beginning of America’s first overseas imperial adventures and how the Navy helped drive these endeavors and reacted to challenges they offered. The third marks the establishment of the Navy as a respected international force and the backbone of America’s modern military might. Each of these three epochs and their associated wars, struggles, and so on contain instances of the Navy exemplifying and responding to Mahan’s three aforementioned key principles. By tracing the Navy’s development through these stages, it becomes clear that the United States’ rise to the position of a world power relied on conditions fostered by this progression. CHAPTER I THE GENESIS OF THE NEW NAVY AND ALFRED MAHAN In his 1890 magnum opus The Influence of Sea Power upon History 1660-1783, Alfred Thayer Mahan famously proposed that a capable navy is an absolute necessity if a nation wishes to secure for itself the benefits of being a global power. He recognized that to meet this effect, the purpose of such a navy should be the “[capability] of reaching distant countries” to project power in their waters, at best, or “to keep clear the chief approaches to its own [waters]” at the very least.3 Mahan identified a number of factors that fit within this concept of sea power. He noted that a nation's sea power is dually governed by “military strength afloat that rules the sea … by force of arms” as well as the capability to defend “the peaceful commerce and shipping from which alone a military fleet naturally and healthfully springs.”4 He noted that historically, the “wise or unwise action of individual men has … had a great modifying influence upon the growth of sea power.”5 The basis of Mahan's conception of sea power is that a strong navy should arise, almost symbiotically, from a nation's natural need for free trade while the promotion and protection of this trade, in and of itself, demands a strong navy. Mahan knew that instilling the influence needed to build up such a navy was easier said than done. Since he also realized that pragmatically, the question of sea power was “eminently one in which the influence of the government should make itself felt,” the government would have to be the primary means through which a navy was built.6 He had to account for the fact that powers within government are sometimes less than efficient, and reliant on the often flawed whims 3 Alfred Mahan. The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783, Twelfth Edition (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1918), 87. 4 Ibid., 28. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid., 87. of the people that made up the government- the “unwise action of individual men” that he refers to. In the case of the United States around the end of the Civil War, the actions of these unwise men seemed to rule the day. The months following the end of the war in 1865 signaled the beginning of a dismal time for the US Navy indeed.