John Wilkinson The Solar System in Close-Up Astronomers’ Universe More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6960 ThiS is a FM Blank Page John Wilkinson The Solar System in Close-Up John Wilkinson Castlemaine, Victoria Australia ISSN 1614-659X ISSN 2197-6651 (electronic) Astronomers’ Universe ISBN 978-3-319-27627-4 ISBN 978-3-319-27629-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-27629-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016934072 # Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or thex editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration: Artistic impression of the New Horizon’s probe approaching Pluto in July 2015. Image credit: NASA/JHU APL/SwRI/Steve Gribben. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland Preface The overwhelming importance of the solar system lies in the fact that we are part of it; its origin and evolution are part of our own history. Astronomers have traditionally observed the solar system for the past few centuries via optical telescopes from the Earth’s surface. Then in 1957, a new method of exploration began with the launch of the first artificial satellite—this event marked the begin- ning of the Space Age. Since this time, humans have improved the technology of their spacecraft to the point where they can now send probes deep into the solar system to places never seen before. In the past few decades, there have been many space probes sent to explore the crater-strewn surface of Mercury and the roasting hot surface of Venus. In 1969, the first humans walked on the surface of the Moon. Since then, we have placed several robotic probes on the surface of Mars and used them to search for life on this planet. The giant planets Jupiter and Saturn together with their many moons and ring systems have also undergone extensive up-close exploration by space probes such as Voyager and Cassini. Saturn’s rings are arguably the most spectacular structure in the solar system, and if placed from end to end, they would reach from Earth to the Moon. The cold icy planets of Uranus and Neptune have thin ring systems and more moons than previously thought. In 2011–2012, the Dawn spacecraft explored the asteroid Vesta before moving on to the largest asteroid Ceres in 2015. In 2014, another spacecraft called Rosetta landed a probe on the surface of a comet—a momentous occasion. And in 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft visited Pluto and provided a wealth of v vi Preface new information about this dwarf planet and its system of five moons. During the past decade, astronomers have used the Hubble Space Telescope to discover other planet-like bodies orbiting beyond Neptune and Pluto, in far-out regions of the solar system called the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud. These new discoveries have provided astronomers with new insights into the origins of the solar system. These new explorations have revealed that Earth’s planetary neighbours are fascinating worlds. Today, we stand on the thresh- old of the next phase of planetary exploration. Many new missions are currently under way and many more are being planned. This book explores recent advances in our understanding of the solar system, in particular the effect on this understanding that the most recent spacecraft missions and the Hubble Space Telescope have provided. This book is, therefore, a record of the many discoveries made about the solar system in recent years using the context of space technology. John Wilkinson Acknowledgements The author and publisher are grateful to the following for the use of photographs in this publication. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Hubble Space Telescope (HST), European Southern Observatory (ESO), Keck Observatory, John Wilkinson (author). While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the author apologises in advance for any accidental infringement where copyright has proved untraceable. He will be pleased to come to a suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case. Notes: The websites used in this book were correct at the time of writing. vii ThiS is a FM Blank Page Contents 1 The New Solar System . ........................ 1 Introduction . 1 Discovering New Planets ...................... 4 What Is a Planet? . ........................... 4 Difference Between a Planet and Dwarf Planet .... 7 Moons and Dwarf Planets . 10 Features of the Solar System . ................ 11 Formation of the Solar System . ................ 15 The Asteroid Belt . .......................... 17 The Kuiper Belt . .................. 17 The Oort Cloud . ............... 18 Comets . .................................. 18 The Modern Nebula Theory . 19 The Modern Laplacian Theory . 20 The Nice Model . ........................... 22 The Grand Tack Hypothesis . ............... 23 In Conclusion . .............................. 23 Further Information .......................... 24 2 Space Probes and Telescopes . ................... 25 Space Telescopes . 26 The Hubble Space Telescope . 27 The Chandra Space Telescope . 28 The XXM-Newton Space Telescope ............. 29 The Spitzer Space Telescope . 30 The Kepler Space Telescope . .................. 30 Future Space Telescopes . 31 Using Space Probes to Explore the Solar System . 33 ix x Contents Current Probes in the Solar System . 33 The Messenger Probe . 34 The New Horizons Probe . ................. 34 The Stereo Probe ............................ 37 The Rosetta Probe . 38 The Dawn Probe . 39 Solar Dynamics Observatory . 40 The Juno Probe . ........................... 41 Mars Science Laboratory . 42 Probing Comets ............................. 42 Probes Leaving the Solar System ................ 44 Further Information .......................... 46 3 The Dominant Sun . 47 Probing the Sun . .......................... 49 Features of the Sun . 51 Energy and Luminosity . 52 Zones of the Sun . .......................... 53 The Core of the Sun . 53 The Radiative Zone . ........................ 54 The Convective Zone ......................... 54 The Photosphere . ............................ 55 The Chromosphere ........................... 59 The Corona ................................. 60 The Solar Wind . 62 Cycles in Solar Activity ....................... 63 Types of Radiation from the Sun . ............ 64 Solar Eclipses . ............................. 65 Influence of the Sun on Earth . 67 The Sun’s Future . .................. 68 Further Information .......................... 68 4 Mercury: The Iron Planet ......................... 69 Early Views About Mercury . 70 Probing Mercury . 72 Position and Orbit ........................... 74 Density and Composition . 75 The Surface ................................. 77 Mercury’s Atmosphere . ....................... 79 Temperature and Seasons . 80 Magnetic Field .............................. 82 Further Information .......................... 83 Contents xi 5 Venus: A Hot, Toxic Planet ....................... 85 Early Views About Venus . 86 Probing Venus ............................... 86 Position and Orbit . ......................... 91 Density and Composition . 93 The Surface ................................. 93 The Atmosphere . 97 Temperature and Seasons . 99 Magnetic Field . ............................ 101 Further Information .......................... 101 6 Earth: The Planet of Life . 103 Early Views About Earth . ................... 105 Probing Earth . ......................... 105 Position and Orbit . ......................... 107 Density and Composition . 108 The Surface ................................. 110 The Atmosphere . 112 Temperature and Seasons . 112 Magnetic Field . ............................ 114 The Moon . 114 Early Views About the Moon .................. 116 Probing the Moon . 116 Position and Orbit . ......................... 119 Density and Composition . 121 The Surface ................................. 122 The Atmosphere of the Moon . ............ 127 Temperature . ........................ 127 Magnetic Field . ............................ 128 Further Information .......................... 128 7 Mars: The Red Planet . ........................... 129 Early Views About Mars . .................... 130 Probing Mars . ............................. 132 Position and Orbit . ......................... 135 Density and Composition . 138 The Surface ................................. 138 The Martian Atmosphere ....................