‘Biosensors in Fluffy Coats’: Interspecies Relationships and Knowledge Production at the Nexus of Dog-Training and Scientific Research Katrina Holland University College London Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) 2018 1 I, Katrina Holland, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 2 Abstract This thesis explores human–dog relations and knowledge production at the nexus of dog- training and scientific research, when dogs are trained to detect the odour of human disease via biological samples. Based on twelve months of fieldwork at two dog-training and research organisations, in the UK and USA, this thesis explores the practices through which bio-detection dogs are produced and how knowledge is produced about, and with, them. Whilst a growing body of scholarship exists across and beyond the social sciences, on both human–animal relations and the role of animals in laboratory practices, the relatively recent emergence of research practices involving bio-detection dogs illustrates a novel mode of incorporating animals into scientific practice that has, until now, evaded theoretical analysis. By focusing on this practice, this thesis contributes original insights to the literature regarding both multispecies relationships and science studies. Consistent with the intellectual commitment of multispecies ethnographers to bring nonhuman beings into the ethnographic foreground, the analysis presented in this thesis pays attention not only to the dog-trainers’ perceptions of the dogs, nor solely to what the dogs might be (i.e., as a species) but also to what the dogs are observed as doing themselves. Developing an analysis of how interconnectedness between human and dog is shaped among my informants, this thesis explores how the boundary between human and animal, that is often assumed to be rigid in sites of scientific practice, is called into question through the engagements between humans and dogs in the realm of bio-detection. The notion of ‘response-ability’ (Haraway 2008) emerges as an important analytic for understanding the practices and processes of bio-detection dog-training and research, as the capacity of both partners to respond and be affected by the other is revealed to be fundamental to both the training and research practices. 3 Impact Statement Despite their relatively high prevalence, certain forms of cancer (e.g., prostate or ovarian cancer) and other diseases remain difficult and dangerous to diagnose. This project explores human–dog relationships and the production of scientific knowledge where dogs are trained to detect the odour of human diseases including cancer. This project also explores the conditions under which this relatively recent practice has developed. The impact of this thesis can be assessed both within and beyond academia. Inside academia Within the discipline of anthropology, this thesis contributes particularly to scholarship regarding the ‘animal turn’, with the work presented complementing research that has illustrated the entanglement of human lives with the lives and deaths of myriad other species. This research also adds to the body of social scientific literature exploring the place of animals in spaces of scientific inquiry, by considering a case study previously unexplored from a social science perspective. Thus, this work contributes original insights to interdisciplinary conversations—among the humanities, social sciences and sciences— about the spaces and practices of animal-dependent research. The insights developed in this thesis also benefit the nonhuman animals in my research by promoting discussion about the ways in which they are enrolled in research activities and how more responsible practices in science might be facilitated. I have presented papers based on this research at several interdisciplinary academic conferences including the British Animal Studies Network meeting ‘Working with Animals’ in October 2017 and more recently, a conference entitled ‘Rendering the Invisible Visible’ hosted by artists at University College London in May 2018. Outside academia Outside the academic arena, this thesis provokes reflections on our contemporary relationships with dogs and our responsibility towards nonhuman animals more broadly. Through the lens of bio-detection dogs, this project helps the wider public to consider the diverse ways in which people form associations with nonhuman animals in order to improve human health. This impact has been advanced through public engagement activities. Most notably, I contributed stories and objects from my research to the exhibition ‘The Museum 4 of Ordinary Animals’ which ran from 21st September to 22nd December 2017 at the Grant Museum of Zoology, UCL. This exhibition aimed to put ‘ordinary animals’ at the center and explored their contributions to human culture and medicine. The total number of visitors to the exhibition was 15,850. Furthermore, as part of the exhibition’s associated events programme, I spoke on the panel of a public discussion titled ‘Let’s Talk About Dogs’. 5 Table of Contents Acknowledgments 8 List of Figures 9 Chapter 1. Introduction 10 i. The Animal Turn 13 ii. A Turn Towards Dogs 21 iii. Science 29 a. Making Scientific Facts 29 b. Animals in Science 32 iv. The Social and Political Context of Animal Research 35 v. A Note on Terms 39 vi. Summary of Chapters 40 Chapter 2. An Anthropologist Goes to the Dogs: Methodology and Ethics in Field Sites Beyond-the-Human 44 i. Field sites 44 ii. Methodology 53 a. Research Methods 53 b. Researching in Field Sites Beyond-the-Human: Incorporating Animals into Ethnography 54 iii. Ethics 61 a. Informant Anonymity 62 b. Researching in Field Sites Beyond-The-Human: The Invisibility of Animal Informants in the Ethics Review Process 62 Chapter 3. Introducing Bio-Detection Dogs 65 i. The Emergence of Bio-Detection Dogs: From Anecdote to Fact 65 ii. Obtaining Dogs 73 iii. Training Noses 75 iv. Beyond the Nose: Kinship and Companionship with Bio-Detection Dogs 86 v. Conclusion 94 Chapter 4. Cultivating ‘a Dialogue Not a Monologue’ in Bio-Detection Dog- Training 96 i. From Servants to Partners: A Paradigm Shift in Dog-Training Pedagogy 96 ii. Listening to What the Dog Tells You 103 iii. Looking and Being Looked At: Affect in Training Encounters 111 iv. Monitoring and Managing Engagement in Human–Dog Relations 118 v. Conclusion 126 Chapter 5. Care-Full Training and Research 127 i. Locating Care in Scientific Practice 127 ii. Tinkering 131 iii. Enabling Individuality 135 iv. The Possibility for Resistance 138 v. Conclusion 143 Chapter 6. Careers, Flourishing and Interspecies Responsibility 145 6 i. A Dog’s Choice? 145 ii. Careers and Personhood 149 iii. Supporting Bio-Detection Dogs to Flourish 157 iv. Conclusion 160 Chapter 7. Producing and Communicating Knowledge: Interpretations and Representations 161 i. Making Interpretations and Producing Inscriptions 161 ii. ‘Biosensors in Fluffy Coats’: Moving the Bio-Detection Dog Across Social Worlds 170 iii. Intersubjectivity: Moving Beyond Anthropomorphism 177 iv. Conclusion 187 Chapter 8. Conclusion 189 Bibliography 196 7 Acknowledgments My first and deepest appreciation goes to all the people and dogs with whom I interacted in both organisations where the ethnographic research informing this thesis was conducted. I am especially grateful to the people who willingly offered me their time and thoughts. The Anthropology department at UCL has been a wonderfully inspiring and supportive place to conduct a PhD. I would like to offer my special thanks to my primary supervisor, Sahra Gibbon, who has always been readily available to offer guidance and support throughout this project. I am also very grateful to Rebecca Empson for reading and offering valuable feedback on a draft of this thesis. Additionally, I wish to extend my thanks to Luke Freeman who supervised my undergraduate and master’s projects in the department: projects that laid the foundations for this present work. I am extremely grateful to Luke, Sahra and Rebecca for supporting my interest in the topic of human–dog relationships and encouraging me to pursue further research in this area. In addition, Luke and Sahra provided invaluable support in the process of acquiring postgraduate funding that made this project possible. I am also extremely thankful to the Economic and Social Research Council for providing the financial support for this study. As for my cohort, I am especially appreciative of those who attended the thesis writing seminars and provided comments and suggestions on earlier chapters of this work. I am also deeply grateful to Rebecca Williams for always being eager to talk about, and walk with, dogs together. Outside of the university, I am so thankful for the constant love and encouragement of my wonderful friends and family who have each provided invaluable moral support throughout this project. Finally, I would like to thank Max, my constant companion in the writing process, for making sure I took frequent breaks from my desk and reminding me to explore the world outside this thesis every day. In memory of my father, my biggest champion. 8 List of Figures Figure 1. Photos of the Penn Vet Working Dog Center cancer-detection dogs, their names and sponsorship details are stuck to a wall in the research office/training room. Figure 2. Hand-made signs are stuck to the wall of the research office/training room at Penn Vet Working Dog Center, used to communicate the presence of particular dogs within the room. Figure 3. ‘Learning Theory’, © 2014 Lili Chin, licensed under Creative Commons. Figure 4. Several bio-detection dogs watch, through a glass wall, as another dog and his trainer participate in a training session at Medical Detection Dogs. Figure 5. The author and Labrador ‘Charlie’ stood behind the screen at Medical Detection Dogs. 9 Chapter 1. Introduction It is the bi-monthly ‘demonstration-day’ at the headquarters of Medical Detection Dogs: a British charity that conducts research around the dog’s ability to detect the odour of human diseases such as cancer.