Journal of the Western Society of Criminology Volume 14, Issue 3 November 2013 Western Criminology Review Official Journal of the Western Society of Criminology http://wcr.sonoma.edu The Western Criminology Review (WCR) is a forum for the publication and discussion of theory, research, policy, and practice in the rapidly changing and interdisciplinary fields of criminology and criminal justice. The Journal is intended to reflect local (Western), national, and international concerns. Historical and contemporary perspectives are encouraged, as are diverse methodological approaches. Although manuscripts that rely upon text and tables are invited, authors who use other resources permitted on the Internet — e.g., graphics, hypertext links, etc., are also welcome. The publication and distribution of articles will also be accompanied by electronic commentary and discussion. 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Bracy Assistant Editor, Nicole Sherman [email protected] Editorial Staff Name Position Affiliation Email Andre Rosay Consulting Editor University of Alaska Anchorage [email protected] Sharon Chamard Consulting Editor University of Alaska Anchorage [email protected] Stephen Tibbetts Consulting Editor California State University, San [email protected] Bernardino Gisela Bichler Consulting Editor California State University, San [email protected] Bernardino Patrick Jackson Consulting Information Sonoma State University [email protected] Technology Specialist Paula Hammett Consulting Librarian Sonoma State University [email protected] Editorial Advisory Board M. Lyn Exum — North Carolina Paul Mazerolle – Australia Noelle Fearn — Missouri Bill McCarthy — California Craig Hemmens — Idaho Lisa Muftic – Georgia Denise Herz — California Travis Pratt — Arizona Laura J. Hickman — Oregon Brian Renauer — Oregon Daniel Lee — Pennsylvania Paul Sparrow – England Faith Lutze — Washington John Worrall — Texas John Vivian – Arizona The Western Society of Criminology and the staff of the Western Criminology Review are grateful to Sonoma State University Library Faculty for their willingness to house and support the WCR. The WCR is also grateful for the support of Dean Joyce Gattas, College of Professional Studies and Fine Arts, San Diego State University. Copyright © 2013 by the Western Criminology Review. All rights reserved. ISSN 1096‐4886 The Western Criminology Review retains all copyrights to articles and materials published herein. WCR policy for individuals is that they are required to apply the same principles of fair use as apply to printed publication. WCR articles and materials can be read online and downloaded for strictly personal use. However, they may not be copied for other individuals or organizations for resale or profit. For further information, see “Copyright Information for Readers” on the Western Criminology Review website at http://wcr.sonoma.edu/copyright.html/. Submission information may be found on the Western Criminology Review website at http://wcr.sonoma.edu/submit.html/. Contents Feature Articles Collective Crime as a Source of Social Solidarity: A Tentative Test of a Functional Model for Responses to Mass Violence Miika Vuori, James Hawdon, Oksanen Atte, and Pekka Räsänen Neighborhood Boundaries and Structural Determinants of Social Disorganization: Examining the Validity of Commonly Used Measures Timothy C. Hart and Jeremy Waller We be Drinkin’: A Study of Place Management and Premise Notoriety among Risky Bars and Nightclubs Juan J. Franquez, Jennifer Hagala, Steven Lim, and Gisela Bichler Controlling Crime and Disorder in Rental Properties: The Perspective of the Rental Property Manager Greg Koehle Clutching at Life, Waiting to Die: The Experience of Death Row Incarceration Diana Peel Vuori et al./ Western Criminology Review 14(3), 1-15 (2013) Online citation: Vuori, Miika, James Hawdon, Oksanen Atte, and Pekka Räsänen. 2013. “Collective Crime as a Source of Social Solidarity: A Tentative Test of a Functional Model for Responses to Mass Violence.” Western Criminology Review 14(3): 1-15. Collective Crime as a Source of Social Solidarity: A Tentative Test of a Functional Model for Responses to Mass Violence Miika Vuori University of Turku (Finland) James Hawdon Virginia Polytechnic Institute and University Oksanen Atte National Research Institute of Legal Policy (Finland) Pekka Räsänen University of Turku (Finland) Abstract: According to a classic notion by Durkheim, crime can lead to a collective indignation that is expressed through collective displays of solidarity. However, it is also possible that collective crimes represent a decline of the social order and a loss of community. Using two cross-sectional data sets collected in Finnish communities that experienced tragic school shootings, this article provides a tentative test of these two competing hypotheses. We ask how the local communities respond to heinous crimes such as school shootings. We also ask if it is possible that concerns about crime can, at times, promote social cohesion. The results indicate that both models may be applicable; however, contextual factors appear to limit the generalizability of either model. Keywords: collective crime, emotional response to crime, fear of crime, functionalist model of crime, path analysis, school shootings, social solidarity INTRODUCTION male student of hospitality management killed ten people before turning the gun on himself. Nordic countries have recently witnessed unexpected After these incidents, school shootings received and extremely shocking violent events. Before Anders extensive media coverage that raised intense public Breivik murdered 77 people in Utøya Norway in 2011, debates. Finnish governmental officials were forced to numerous people were killed in rampage school shootings respond quickly to concerns about numerous issues in Finland. In November 2007, an 18-year-old man opened ranging from school safety to gun laws. Officials also fire at the Jokela upper secondary school in Tuusula, posited their concerns about weakened social ties and a killing eight students and staff members before committing sense of community (Ministry of Justice 2009; 2010). The suicide. In September 2008, another rampage school perpetrators’ violent videos and messages on the Internet shooting occurred in the small town of Kauhajoki, an act posted prior to the murders raised national and portrayed as a copycat of Jokela. There, a 22-year-old international concerns about the contemporary social order 1 Collective Crime as a Source of Social Solidarity (Lindgren 2010). Such responses are understandable since The controversial functionalist model could thus highlight some criminal events are most frightening. Heinous acts how collective crimes may bond members of community such as school shootings remind everyone that terror can and increase social solidarity. These issues are addressed strike even small and peaceful communities (Warr 2000). using two cross-sectional surveys that were collected from As crimes stir public sensibilities, people are expected the small Finnish towns of Jokela and Kauhajoki six to respond in specific ways. Growing demands to tackle months after the school shootings that occurred in those crime may lead to a self-perpetuating process of increasing localities. Although the time between the tragedy and the crime-related concerns. Crimes committed by young data collection could fail to adequately capture the offenders are often perceived as a deterioration of social immediate post-event indignation that Durkheim discusses, order (Farrall, Jackson and Gray 2009; Ferraro 1995; previous research indicates that solidarity after mass Garland 2001; Jackson 2006; Lee 2001; Lee and Farrall tragedies remains elevated for approximately six months 2008; Loader, Girling and Sparks 1998; Warr 2000). after the event (see Collins 2004; Hawdon, Ryan and Public appraisals and news reporting may also influence Agnich 2010). Therefore, while our data are not optimal, how individuals assess the quality of local relationships they were collected within the time that solidarity would and social trust (Farrall, Jackson and Gray 2009; Smolej likely have been elevated. 2011). Tragedies reflect unpredictable moral sensibilities, and people often become more suspicious towards certain individuals and social groups who do not appear to THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS: conform to commonly shared values (Lewis and Salem COLLECTIVE CRIMES AND SOLIDARITY 1986). This process may even result in people altering and Durkheimian theory is grounded in emotional limiting their everyday routines (Farrall, Jackson and Gray resonance. People build commitments through emotions 2009; Ferraro 1995; Garofalo 1981; Liska and Warner that constitute a sense of community after criminal events 1991; Warr 2000). (Durkheim [1893] 1997; see also Garland 1990; Hutchison Undoubtedly, fear-inducing events such as school and Bleiker 2008). Expressions of moral emotions are shootings have negative individual- and community-level present when people construct the meanings