Notes Introduction 1. Kwame Nkrumah, Towards Colonial Freedom: Africa in the Struggle against World Imperialism, London: Heinemann, 1962. Kwame Nkrumah was the first president of Republic of Ghana, 1957–1966. 2. J.M. Roberts, History of the World, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 425. For further details see Leonard Thompson, A History of South Africa, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990, pp. 31–32. 3. Douglas Farah, “Al Qaeda Cash Tied to Diamond Trade,” The Washington Post, November 2, 2001. 4. Ibid. 5. http://www.africapolicy.org/african-initiatives/aafall.htm. Accessed on July 25, 2004. 6. G. Feldman, “U.S.-African Trade Profile.” Also available online at: http:// www.agoa.gov/Resources/TRDPROFL.01.pdf. Accessed on July 25, 2004. 7. Ibid. 8. Salih Booker, “Africa: Thinking Regionally, Update.” Also available online at: htt://www.africapolicy.org/docs98/reg9803.htm. Accessed on July 25, 2004. 9. For full details on Nigeria’s contributions toward eradication of the white minority rule in Southern Africa and the eradication of apartheid system in South Africa see, Olayiwola Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966–1999, Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003, pp. 79–93. 10. See Olayiwola Abegunrin, Nigeria and the Struggle for the Liberation of Zimbabwe: A Study of Foreign Policy Decision Making of an Emerging Nation. Stockholm, Sweden: Bethany Books, 1992, p. 141. 1 Nigeria and the Struggle for the Liberation of South Africa 1. “Mr. Prime Minister: A Selection of Speeches Made by the Right Honorable, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa,” Prime Minister of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Lagos: National Press Limited, 1964, p. 97. 204 Notes 2. Leonard Thompson, A History of South Africa, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990, pp. 187–242. 3. For full details see Robert Harvey, The Fall of Apartheid: The Inside Story from Smuts to Mbeki, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. 4. Ibid. 5. For full details on the fall of apartheid see the following books: Allister Sparks, Tomorrow Is Another Country: The Inside Story of South Africa’s Road to Change, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995, Harvey, and Heather Deegan, The Politics of the New South Africa: Apartheid and After, New York: Longman, 2001. 6. Michael Crowder, A History of Nigeria, New York: Praeger, 1962, p. 213. Also see Olayiwola Abegunrin, “Nigerian Federalism, Resource Control and Restructuring: The Imperative of Sovereign National Conference,” in Segun Gbadegesin, ed., The Imperative of Cultural Democracy in Nigeria: Reflections from the Yoruba Diaspora, Mitcheville, MD: Pinnacle, 2006, pp. 88–98. 7. Brian Lapping, Apartheid: A History, revised edition, New York: George Braziller, 1989, pp. 1–3 8. Alan Burns, History of Nigeria, seventh edition, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958, p. 126. 9. Crowder, pp. 169–176. 10. Kehinde Faluyi, “Nigeria in the Nineteenth Century,” in Akinjide Osuntokun and Ayodele Olukoju, eds., Nigerian Peoples and Cultures, Ibadan: Davidson Press, 1997, pp. 171–172. 11. The News, Lagos, February 26, 2001, p. 22. 12. Burns, p. 210. 13. Crowder, p. 213. 14. See Omo Omoruyi, The Tale of June 12: The Betrayal of the Democratic Rights of Nigerians (1993), London: Press Alliance Network Limited, 1999. Also see Eghosa E. Osaghae, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998. 15. Thompson, A History of South Africa, p. 32. 16. Ibid., p. 33. 17. Ibid., p. 36. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid., p. 115. 20. Leonard Thompson, “The Subjection of the African Chiefdoms: Great Britain and the Afrikaner Republic,” and “The Compromised of Union,” in Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, eds. The Oxford History of South Africa, 2 volumes, New York: Oxford University Press, 1971, pp. 245–364. 21. For details of the origins of apartheid see Charles T. Loram, Education of the South African Native. London: Longman, Green and Company, 1917. Also see Muriel Horrell, African Education: Some Origins and Development until 1953. Johannesburg: South Africa Institute of Race Relations, 1953. 22. Ibid. In addition see Lapping, p. 128. 23. Lapping, p. 105. 24. Ibid. Notes 205 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. pp. 133–134. 27. Richard Gibson, African Liberation Movement: Contemporary Struggle against White Minority Rule. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972, p. 24. 28. The Pass is a document that includes information on ethnic origin, age, birth- place, employment, etc. that must be carried at all times by each black person in South Africa under apartheid rule. For details on Pass see G.M. Carter and P. O’Meara, eds., Southern Africa: The Continuing Crisis, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1979, p. 102. 29. Lapping, pp. 137–138. 30. R.A. Akindele, ed., The Organization of African Unity, 1963–1988, Ibadan: Vantage, 1988, p. 131. 31. Federation of Nigeria, Parliamentary Debates: House of Representatives, March- May Session, 1960, Lagos: Government Printer, 1960, p. 152. 32. United Nations, General Assembly Official Records, Eighteenth Session, Records of 1221st Meeting and Resolutions, New York: United Nations, September 30, 1963, p. 12. 33. United Nations Document A/SPC/L.71 and Corr. 1 and add. 1–4 L/Rev.1. 34. Jaja Wachuku’s Address to the House of Representatives Debates, November 1961, Lagos: Government Printer, 1961, p. 14. 35. Olayiwola Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966– 1999, Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003, p. 33. 36. Okon Akiba, Nigerian Foreign Policy towards Africa: Continuity and Change, New York: Peter Lang, 1998, p. 14. 37. Statement by the Ministry of External Affairs on the 7th Anniversary of African Liberation Day, May 25, 1970, Lagos: Ministry of External Affairs, 1970, p. 6. 38. “Okoi Arikpo’s Speech at the Council of Ministers’ Meeting,” Nigeria: Bulletin on Foreign Affairs, volume 2, no. 1, July 1971, pp. 39–42. 39. Organization of African Unity, The Principles of the OAU Charter: The Lusaka Manifesto, Dialogue and Future Strategy, Addis Ababa: OAU, 1971, p. 153. 40. Joy Ogwu, Nigerian Foreign Policy: Alternative Future, Lagos: Nigeria Institute of International Affairs, 1986, p. 66. 41. Akiba, p. 139. 42. Ibid. pp. 139–140. 43. Ibid., p. 138 44. Joseph Garba, Diplomatic Soldiering: Nigerian Foreign Policy 1975–1979, Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 1987, p. 93. 45. Olajide Aluko, Essays in Nigerian Foreign Policy, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1981, pp. 24, 33–34. 46. Akiba, p. 147. 47. Abegunrin, p. 93. 48. Olayiwola Abegunrin and H.E. Newsum, United States Foreign Policy towards Southern Africa: Andrew Young and Beyond, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987, p. 77. 206 Notes 49. Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966–1999, p. 91. 50. Ibid. 51. Akiba, p. 147. 52. Ibid. See also Adeoye A. Akinsanya, “Multinational Corporations in South Africa: Armed Conflict and Majority Rule in Southern Africa,” International Review of Politics and Development, volume 3, June 2005, 14–51. 53. The Lusaka Manifesto: The Future of Southern Africa. Fifth Summit of East and Central African States held in Lusaka, Zambia, April 14–16, 1969. See Kenneth W. Grundy, Confrontation and Accommodation in Southern Africa: The Limit of Independence, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973, pp. 315–323. 54. Olajide Aluko, “Nigeria, Namibia and Southern Africa,” in Olajide Aluko and Timothy Shaw, eds., Southern Africa in the 1980s, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985, p. 53. 55. Ibid. 56. Adekunle Ajala, “Nigeria and the Conflict in Southern Africa,” in Gabriel O. Olusanya and R.A. Akindele, eds., Economic Development and Foreign Policy in Nigeria, Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1988, p. 203. 57. “Nigerians Support for Liberation of the Continent,” Nigerian Review, volume 8, 1977, pp. 1–2. 58. On June 16, 1976, thousands of black students revolted against a second- class rate education system that required them to take classes in Afrikaans, the language of the Dutch descendants (white minority), who were the main architects of apartheid policy. See John Kane-Berman. Soweto: Black Revolt, White Reaction. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1978. 59. Thabo Mbeki was a guest of Nigerian Government where he lived from 1977 to 1984 before he moved to Lusaka, Zambia. He was living at the 1,001 Apartment in Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria, 1977–1984. 60. Olajide Aluko, “Nigerian Foreign Policy in the Year 2000,” in Timothy Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., Nigerian Foreign Policy: Alternative Perceptions and Projections. London: Macmillan Press, 1983, pp. 195–196. 61. The original members of the Frontline States are as follows: Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia, and later joined by Zimbabwe in 1980. The Frontline States objective was to bring about independence under African majority rule in Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa. Gilbert M. Khadiagala, Allies in Adversity: The Frontline States in Southern African Security, 1975–1993, Athens: Ohio State University, 1994. 62. Ibrahim A. Gambari, Theory and Reality in Foreign Policy Making: Nigeria in the Second Republic. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1989, p. 118. 63. Lapping, pp. 137–139. 64. For details on Nigeria’s contributions to (ANC and PAC) South African Liberation Movements see Olajide Aluko, “Nigeria, the United States and Southern Africa,” African Affairs, volume 78, no. 310, January 1979. Also Notes 207 see Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966–1999, p. 81. 65. West Africa, London, September 6, 1976, p. 1305. 66. Ibid. 67. Robert Schrire, South Africa: Time Running Out, Adopt or Die: The End of White Politics in South Africa, New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1991, pp. 126–131. 68. Anthony Sampson, Mandela: The Authorized Biography, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999, p. xxii. 69. Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966–1999, pp. 151–152. 70. “Nigeria Foaming with Blood,” The Economist, London, November 18–24, 1995, pp. 17–18. 71. Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966–1999, p.