EGYPTIAN RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS IN JUDAH AND ISRAEL FROM 900 B.C.E. TO 587 B.C.E.: A STUDY OF SEAL ICONOGRAPHY by FLORIS NICOLAS VERMEULEN Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject of BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR WS BOSHOFF FEBRUARY 2010 SUMMARY When cultures meet, mutual influences and cultural exchanges are unavoidable. Egypt’s contact with Syro-Palestine goes back to at least the Chalcolithic Period. Egypt was a major role player in the region throughout the Bronze Age. The discoveries at Ugarit have placed a lot of emphasis on possible Canaanite influences on the religion of ancient Israel. The purpose of this study is to investigate if cultural exchanges led to Egyptian religious concepts being accepted in Israel and Judah during the period 900-587 B.C.E. (Iron IIB and C). For this reason the iconography on contemporary seals was investigated. Symbols in ancient times, especially amongst illiterate societies, were important instruments in conveying ideas and concepts. The Hebrew Bible abounds with symbolism to illustrate the powers of Yahweh. Egyptian iconography on Hebrew seals, in particular seal amulets, has been regarded by most biblical scholars as mere decorations and the amulets regarded as ‘good luck’ charms. Seal amulets were important instruments of magical ritual in ancient Egypt, where there was no distinction between magic and religion. Biblical prohibitions against magic show that in Israel and Judah, it was regarded as a form of idolatry, thus religious rituals. An important factor to be considered is the influence of Phoenicia on the region during the Period. Close relationships seem to have existed between Phoenicia with the United Kingdom of Israel and later with the northern Kingdom of Israel. An investigation of Phoenician seals from the period revealed that Egyptian religious iconography was used by all levels of Phoenician society. They inter alia used Egyptian imagery to portray their own gods. Seals from Israel and Judah during Iron IIB and C indicate that Egyptian religious iconography was also used on seals by all levels of society in those kingdoms. Israel, due to its close proximity to Phoenicia, probably imported these images via Phoenicia. Judah, due to its isolation, probably got those images directly from Egypt. Some of these images may be ascribed to attempts to portray aspects of Yahweh’s powers. Others convey definite Egyptian religious messages. Egyptian influences on Israelite religion played a larger role than previously accepted. Key terms: Archaeology; Biblical Archaeology; Syro-Palestine; the northern Kingdom of Israel; the southern Kingdom of Judah; Phoenicia; Egypt; Iron Ages IIB and C; culture; cultural exchange; religion; seals; seal amulets; seal iconography. CONTENTS Dedication vi Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations ix List of tables x List of illustrations xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Defining various concepts 11 1.2.1 Introduction 11 1.2.2 Relevant concepts 12 1.2.2.1 Adaptation 12 1.2.2.2 Appropriation 12 1.2.2.3 Culture 12 1.2.2.4 Cultural exchange 13 1.2.2.5 Interaction 14 1.2.2.6 Transculturation 15 1.3 Statement of the problem 15 1.4 Addressing the problem 21 1.5 Pictorial evidence 23 1.6 Seals: History in miniature 26 1.6.1 The seal of Jezebel 32 1.6.2 The seal of Hezekiah 38 1.7 Conclusion 43 i CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RECENT LITERATURE 46 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 Ziony Zevit 48 2.3 William G. Dever 51 2.4 Othmar Keel & Christoph Uehlinger 52 2.5 Amihai Mazar 55 2.6 Izak Cornelius 56 2.7 Conclusion 58 CHAPTER 3: SYMBOLISM AND RELIGION 60 3.1 Introduction 60 3.2 Application of symbolism 63 3.3 Symbolism and religion 65 3.4 Conclusion 68 CHAPTER 4: EGYPT’S CONTACT WITH SYRO-PALESTINE, CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS AND SYMBOLISM 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Religion and cult in ancient Egypt during relevant periods 73 4.2.1 Cults, temples and rituals 73 4.2.2 Magic and Egyptian religion 77 4.2.3 Egyptian religious symbolism and its meaning 78 4.2.4 Amulets and scarabs 80 4.3 Ancient Egypt’s contact with Syro-Palestine and relevant prevailing religious concepts 83 4.3.1 Introduction 83 4.3.2 Predynastic Egypt 84 ii 4.3.3 The Old Kingdom (ca. 2686-2181 B.C.E.) 87 4.3.4 The First Intermediary Period (ca.2181-2050 B.C.E.) 90 4.3.5 The Middle Kingdom (ca. 2050-1786 B.C.E.) 90 4.3.6 The Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1786-1567 B.C.E.) 91 4.3.7 The New Kingdom (ca.1567-1058 B.C.E.) 93 4.3.8 Third Intermediate Period (ca.1085-664 B.C.E.) 96 4.3.9 The Late Dynastic Period (ca. 664-332 B.C.E.) 100 4.4 Egyptian religion during relevant periods 106 4.4.1 The Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties 106 4.4.2 The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty 110 4.5 Conclusion 112 CHAPTER 5: EGYPTIAN SYMBOLISM ON PHOENICIAN SEALS DURING IRON IIB AND C 114 5.1 Introduction 114 5.2 Egyptian religious symbols on Phoenician seals 117 5.3 Analysis of Phoenician seals with Egyptian motifs 122 5.3.1 Introduction 122 5.3.2 Analysis of some Phoenician epigraphic seals 123 5.3.2.1 The seal of Ger῾ashtart 123 5.3.2.2 Seal belonging to Ger῾Eshmun, son of Ḥ imelek 127 5.3.2.3 Seal belonging to Yaḥziba al 132 5.3.2.4 Seal belonging to Ḥeddai 136 5.3.2.5 139 5.3.3 Phoenician anepigraphic seals 144 5.3.3.1 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (1) 145 5.3.3.2 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (2) 147 5.3.3.3 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (3) 149 5.3.3.4 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (4) 152 5.3.3.5 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (5) 155 iii 5.3.3.6 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (6) 157 5.3.3.7 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (7) 159 5.4 Conclusion 161 CHAPTER 6: AN ANALYSIS OF SEALS FROM ISRAEL AND JUDAH DATING TO IRON 11B AND C 164 6.1 Introduction 164 6.2 Seals with Hebrew inscriptions and Egyptianised iconography 174 6.2.1 The seal of Jezebel revisited 175 6.2.2 The seal of Hezekiah revisited 183 6.2.3 Seal Belonging to Elishama ‘son of the king’ 185 6.2.4 Seal belonging to Manasseh son of the king 188 6.2.5 Seal belonging to Ushnâ servant of Ahaz 190 6.2.6 Seal belonging to Abiyau servant of ῾Uzziyau 194 6.2.7 Seal belonging to Asap 199 6.2.8 Seal belonging to ḥmn 202 6.2.8.1 Seal belonging to Azaryaw (son of) hgbh (Haggobeh or Haggebah) 205 6.2.8.2 Seal of Aḥiṣ ûr 207 6.2.9 Seal belonging to Ushna 209 6.2.10 Seal belonging to Elishamaʿ (son of) Śarmelek 212 6.2.11 Seal belonging Dalā 213 6.2.12 Seal belonging to Ḥabl i 216 6.2.13 Seal belonging to Zaka 218 6.2.14 Seal belonging to Elamar 220 6.2.15 Seal belonging to Peqah 224 6.2.16 Seal belonging to mnr 230 6.2.17 The seal of ŠMRYW 234 6.2.18 Seal belonging to ‘Naveyahu (son of) ‘Azayahyu’ 237 iv 6.3 Hebrew anepigraphic seals with Egyptian iconography 239 6.3.1 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 1 239 6.3.2 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 2 243 6.3.3 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 3 247 6.3.4 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 4, lmlk 249 6.4 Conclusion 251 CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEN- DATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 255 7.1 Summary 255 7.1.1 Introduction 255 7.1.2 Chapter 2 to 4 257 7.1.3 Chapter 5 259 7.1.4 Chapter 6 260 7.2 Conclusions 262 7.3 Recommendations for further study 265 ANNEXURES A COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGIES OF ISRAEL/JUDAH AND EGYPT DURING THE IRON AGE IN PALESTINE 267 B LIST OF EGYPTIAN AND PHOENICIAN GODS, RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS AND TERMS 269 C EGYPTIAN CREATION MYTHS 347 BIBLIOGRAPHY 350 v DEDICATION I dedicate this study to my wonderful wife Myra, our children Herman, Surene, Petrus and Wilma and our four grandchildren Wessels, Nicola, Myralene and Wihan who have patiently borne the brunt of my unavailability, impatience and sometimes rudeness. The years lost cannot be retrieved and for that I humbly apologise to you all. Sed fugit interea, fugit inreparabile Fast flies meanwhile the irreparable hour, tempus, As point to point our charmed round we singula dum capti circumvectamur trace. amore. Here lies a labour; hence for glory look, Brave husbandmen. Nor doubtfully know Hic labor, hinc laudem fortes sperate How hard it is for words to triumph here, coloni. And shed their lustre on a theme so slight: Nec sum animi dubius, verbis ea vincere But I am caught by ravishing desire magnum Above the lone Parnassian steep; I love quam sit, et angustis hunc addere rebus To walk the heights, from whence no earlier honorem; track sed me Parnasi deserta per ardua dulcis Slopes gently downward to Castalia's spring. raptat amor; iuvat ire iugis, qua nulla priorum Castaliam molli devertitur orbita clivo. Publius Vergilius Maro Georgicon, liber III (284-294.) vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would not have been possible without the input of many people and I can merely extend a simple thank you. My wife and right hand Myra; the sacrifices she made are legion; from continuous mugs of coffee and attending to menial tasks in and around the house to the sacrifice of well deserved vacations and finally her proofreading and assistance with preparation of the final document.