Religious Narratives and Religious Themes in the Novels of Achilles Tatius and Heliodorus MARGARET EDSALL New York 1. Introduction The prominence of religious themes in the Greek novels has elicited a vari- ety of views about the relationship between the novel and religion:1 1) the novels are cult texts of mystery religions;2 2) particular cults indirectly influ- ence the novels;3 3) the novels are religious in a more general sense;4 4) reli- gious themes are a resource for narrative technique with no reference beyond the boundaries of fiction.5 Recently, Merkelbach and Bowersock have pro- posed that religious themes reflect the novel’s origin in religious narratives.6 Merkelbach concludes that religious themes reflect not only the novel’s symbolic meaning but also its origin in pagan aretalogies.7 Bowersock sug- gests that religious themes are inspired by Christian miracle narratives but the novel remains a “secular scripture.”8 Interestingly, each critic isolates a different type of religious narrative as the source of the novel’s origin but admits that other genres are at play. According to Fusillo, multiple hypothe- ses concerning literary influences may be plausibly advanced, since the novel seems to derive from the disintegration of previous literary forms.9 Thus, these conclusions raise a far different issue than they in fact address: ————— 1 Morgan 1996. 2 Kerenyi 1927; Merkelbach 1962. 3 Altheim 1948; Weinreich 1962; Griffiths 1978; Edwards 1985. 4 Beck 1996; Reardon 1969; Heiserman 1977; Hägg 1983. 5 Winkler 1980; 1982; Morgan 1978; 1996. 6 Merkelbach 1994; Bowersock 1994a. 7 Symbolic meaning: Merkelbach 1962; Origin in pagan aretalogy: Merkelbach 1994, 290. 8 Bowersock 1994a, 143 . 9 Fusillo 1988, 17–18. RELIGIOUS NARRATIVES AND RELIGIOUS THEMES 115 the variety of voices in the genre and the relationship between the novel and religious narratives. Abandoning questions of origin, I hope to address this issue by looking at key passages discussed by these scholars in the context of religious themes in the early phase of the novel represented by Chariton and Xenophon of Ephesus and the later phase represented by Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius. 2. Religious Narratives Religious narratives which have precise contacts in the novels tend to be miracle stories of one kind or another. Merkelbach refers to aretalogies, both pagan and Christian.10 Bowersock refers to Christian works, such as the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the novel and hagiography.11 Although it is common to refer to different types of religious narratives using categories such as “epiphany reports,” “aretalogies,” or “miracle narratives,” the an- cients seem not to have recognized them as distinct genres.12 They did dis- tinguish among different kinds of encounters with the gods: an unseen pres- ence; a face to face encounter between god and man; visits of gods in unper- ceived disguises; the appearances of gods in dreams.13 These types of reli- gious experience are well represented in literature and inscriptions. From Homer until the times of the Greek novelists, the details of such encounters follow a fixed pattern and the language used to describe them regularly re- flects the language used in the epics.14 It is reasonable to assume a more complex relationship than direct borrowing, that a thought pattern associated with this type of religious phenomenon became crystallized in literature and inscriptions and that the resulting religious narrative patterns were occasion- ally enhanced by a return to Homeric language.15 At the same time, Homer and other writers used these narrative patterns for their own literary effects.16 ————— 10 Merkelbach 1994, 283–285. 11 Bowersock 1994a, 141. 12 Smith 1981, 174–99; Winkler 1985, 235–238. 13 Lane Fox 1985, 127; Mussies 1980, 1–18. 14 Lane Fox 1985, 110; I follow the generally accepted dates, e.g., as in Schmeling 1996: Chariton, mid-first century A.D. or earlier; Xenophon, probably second century A.D.; Longus, second to third century A.D.; Achilles Tatius, second half or third quarter of the second century A.D.; Heliodorus, between 350 and 375 A.D. 15 Lane Fox 1985, 110. 16 Lane Fox 1985, 107. 116 MARGARET EDSALL Christians recognized that they shared with pagans these types of experience and their rich literary tradition. Thus, the typical thought patterns and their tell-tale narrative patterns may be observed in Christian writing as well.17 Such narrative patterns occur in the early phase of the novels but become more pronounced in the richer literary elaboration of Achilles Tatius and Heliodorus, suggesting that references to religion are part of the novel’s lit- erary development.18 For the purposes of this paper, I shall confine myself to examples of religious narratives commonly referred to as epiphany reports, aretalogies and martyrologies, which have precise contacts with the novels. Allusions to specific narrative patterns are rare. Instead, we find combina- tions of typical elements. For example, in Chariton and Heliodorus, several passages echo elements of epiphany reports such as the trademarks of spe- cific deities, unusual beauty, luminous clothes and great height.19 In addition, the endings of the novels, particularly those of Xenophon, Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, contain aretalogical elements such as the public recitation of miracles, acclamations, the amazement of a crowd of witnesses and confes- sions.20 Finally, in Heliodorus, a specific narrative pattern from a martyrol- ogy is echoed, along with typical elements of martyrology.21 These passages will be the point of departure for a discussion of the relationship between religious narratives and religious themes in the novels of Achilles Tatius and Heliodorus. 3. The Early Phase of the Novels To evaluate the role of religious narratives in the more elaborate novels of Achilles Tatius and Heliodorus, it is useful to survey the religious themes in the early phase of the novels represented by Chariton and Xenophon. In these authors religious themes cluster around the descriptions of the romantic heroines and the endings. In Chariton, religious narratives are rewritten to assimilate Callirhoe’s appearance to that of a goddess. At the beginning and throughout the novel, ————— 17 Lane Fox 1985, 109; 375–418; Versnel 1987, 42–55; Merkelbach 1994, 283–285. 18 On the development from an early phase to a richer literary elaboration, see Kuch 1985, 3–19. 19 Mussies 1980, 8; Dietrich 1983, 53–79. 20 Kerenyi 1927; Merkelbach 1962; Pervo 1987, 107; Merkelbach 1994. 21 Bowersock 1994a, 121–131. RELIGIOUS NARRATIVES AND RELIGIOUS THEMES 117 she resembles Aphrodite and those who see her react as if they are experi- encing an epiphany.22 On her wedding day, she resembles Artemis, and the crowd is amazed and worships her.23 On another occasion, Chaereas’ sudden collapse upon seeing her image on a temple dedication in Aphrodisias is mistaken for a reaction to one of the many epiphanies of Aphrodite that oc- cur in the area.24 Her resemblance to goddesses and people’s reactions recall typical elements of epiphany reports where the appearance of a deity is met with typical reactions such as amazement, proskunesis, and collapse.25 In these passages, typical elements of epiphany reports articulate the remarkable beauty of the romantic heroine. At the opening of all the extant novels except Longus, the heroine is compared to a goddess.26 Chariton de- velops this motif by repeatedly comparing Callirhoe to Aphrodite. The re- writing of the epiphany report also belongs to Chariton’s narrative technique. Throughout the novel, he relies on elements from historiography and epic to ennoble his story.27 In these passages, epiphany reports serve the same se- mantic function. They also contribute to the novel’s visual strategy.28 The references to epiphany not only invite the readers to gaze at Callirhoe, but also inform their responses to this gaze. The range of emotions associated with epiphany – amazement, falling on the knees in adoration and fainting – provides readers with an emotional lens through which to view her. So reli- gious narratives are yet another intertext through which Callirhoe’s passive eroticism is constructed. In Xenophon’s novel, religious themes are more prominent. At the be- ginning of the novel, the narrator says that whenever the Ephesians used to see Anthia in the sacred enclosure, they would worship her as Artemis.29 So at her first appearance, the crowd gives an acclamation. Some are amazed and say that she is the goddess in person, others that she was made by the goddess in her own image. All pray and prostrate themselves. At the begin- ————— 22 Chariton 1,1,1; 1,14,1; 2,2; 2,3 . 23 Chariton 1,1,15. 24 Chariton 3,6–8. 25 Amazement: Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 84; 180–195; Worship: Homeric Hymn to Demeter 292–293; Collapse: Acts 25, 12–16. 26 Chariton 1,1; Xenophon Ephes. 1,2; Achilles Tatius 1,4. 27 Fusillo 1988; Fusillo 1989. 28 Egger 1994, 37. 29 Xenophon Ephes., 1,2,7. 118 MARGARET EDSALL ning of their travels, Anthia and Habrocomes arrive in Rhodes.30 The Rhodi- ans are amazed at their beauty. Some say it was a visitation of auspicious gods; some worship and adore them. Not only do the lovers seem divine but the crowd’s responses to their appearance mirror typical reactions to epiph- any such as acclamation, amazement, prayer and worship. As in Chariton, elements of epiphany reports emphasize the beauty of the romantic heroine and inform readers’ responses. However, in Xenophon, they are amplified to include Habrocomes and events in the lives of the lovers. Elements of aretalogy are also used to shape events in the lovers’ lives. In Book 4, when Habrocomes is condemned to the pyre, he prays to the god of the Nile that he be spared, and the waters rise and put out the flames.