Rachel Dewan Bronze Age Flower Power: The Minoan Use and Social Significance of Saffron and Crocus Flowers Rachel Dewan While iconography of the natural world abounds in the art of the Bronze Age Minoan culture, one plant seems particularly prevalent; represented on ceramics, in wall-paintings, and on votive objects are numerous depictions of the crocus flower. The saffron spice, a product of the flower, was carefully recorded in Linear B texts, testifying to its importance as a valuable economic commodity, but its inclusion in highly detailed iconographic representations and the contexts within which they were found attest to a significance that extended beyond commercial import. Particularly associated with women in the spheres of Minoan industry, medicine, and religion, the pervasive importance of saffron and the crocus flower made it not only a valuable commodity throughout the Bronze Age Mediterranean world, but also an integral part of culture and identity for Minoan women. 42 Chronika Bronze Age Flower Power Introduction With floral scrolls, marine motifs, animal iconography, and vast landscapes evident in much of Minoan art, a connection between Minoan art and nature has been noted by scholars since Sir Arthur Evans first uncovered the remains of this Bronze Age culture in 1900.1 Indeed, the interpretation of the natural world’s significance to the Minoans has been perpetuated by the numerous depictions of Aegean flora and fauna, even exaggerated to the extent that the Minoans are sometimes referred to as the “hippies of the ancient world.”2 As overstated as this characterization may be, the natural world was clearly of great Figure 1: Map of the Aegean with significant Late Bronze significance for the Minoans, and further Age sites. Inset highlights the important sites of the investigation reveals that specific plants and Argolid (courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) animals were regarded with particular esteem. Terminology and Chronology The crocus flower is an intriguing example of one of those plants. The crocus and the Before embarking on discussions concerning saffron spice derived from this flower appear in Aegean cultures, it is pertinent to note the a myriad of contexts within the archaeological challenges inherent in the nomenclature. record of the ancient Aegean. Each one “Minoan,” in its proper sense, refers only held meaning for Bronze Age peoples, and to the Bronze Age peoples of Crete.4 The “it is the specific social context in which this chronological period of Late Minoan (LM) meaning operate[d] which is important,”3 IA, however, saw a spread of Minoan cultural from iconographic representations to Linear traits and objects throughout many previously- B texts. This evidence sheds light on saffron’s independent Cycladic islands. Given the status as a substance particularly revered by heavily Minoanized nature of sites such as Minoan women, employed in the creation Akrotiri on Thera and Ayia Irini on Kea, it is of a female social identity. Celebrated for its tempting to consider the effect that a “Minoan medicinal benefits, used in the dyeing and thalassocracy” may have had on Crete’s island perfuming industries, and traded throughout neighbours (fig. 1).5 While emulation does the Mediterranean, the versatility of the plant not necessarily imply political control,6 the led to the inclusion of saffron and crocus discovery at Akrotiri of approximately seventy iconography in ritual and symbolic contexts, sealings made of Knossian clay and stamped becoming a distinct symbol of Minoan women with a Cretan seal suggests an administrative and the feminine sphere. By exploring its connection between the two islands, one presence in the decorative iconography of which may have extended to other Minoanized ceramics, wall-paintings, and votive objects, Cycladic sites.7 amongst others, the prominence of the crocus plant within the industrial, medicinal, and “Mycenaean” is a similarly difficult term. religious realms of Minoan society can be Though named for the central site of the revealed. period, the heartland of the Mycenaean world is considered to be the mainland of Greece, specifically the Argolid (Fig. 1 inset). Institute for European and Mediterranean Archaeology 43 Rachel Dewan Mycenaean material culture, however, can be this process be done by hand, saffron continues found throughout the Mediterranean, and its to be one of the few crops in the world whose dominance on Crete from LMII to LMIIIB is manufacture is non-mechanized.10 Estimates termed the “Mycenaean period.”8 Although hypothesize that about 400 hours of labour Crete’s political situation at this time is unclear, is needed to produce just one kilogram of it is likely that mainland Mycenaeans exerted saffron.11 The visual motifs and detailed authority over the island, contributing to a written records of Bronze Age crocuses and decrease in traditionally “Minoan” culture and saffron, however, indicate that such labour was a rise in mainland trends.9 deemed to be a worthwhile endeavour. With these terminological problems The earliest representation of a crocus acknowledged, this paper will use “Minoan” flower can be seen on an Early Kamares to refer to the peoples of the pre-Mycenaean cup from Knossos dating to MMIA-IB (fig. Aegean at large, and “Mycenaean” to discuss 2).12 Trifoliates became more popular as a the mainland culture which dominated LMII- decorative motif in MMIB-II, but it is the LMIIIB Crete when examining the evidence prominently protruding stigmas of the crocus found in the textual and archaeological records. Saffron in the Bronze Age Aegean Today, saffron is familiar as a spice with a subtle yet distinctive flavour, produced by drying the stigma of the crocus plant. As the fragility of the crocus flower and the fine-motor work required to separate the stigmas demand that Figure 2: The earliest depiction of a crocus in the Figure 3: Conical rhyton from Palaikastro decorated Bronze Age Aegean, painted on a Kamares Cup with the ‘Crocus and Festoon’ LM IB Floral Style from the Town Drain at Knossos (Negbi and motif (Betancourt 1985:143, Fig. 108). Negbi 2002:269, Fig. 2). 44 Chronika Bronze Age Flower Power use continued into the Mycenaean period, its value appears to have been rooted in the social significance assigned to it by the Minoans. Artistic and archaeological evidence suggests that saffron came to be a prominent feature in Minoan industry, medicine, and religion, and that its pervasive importance made it and the crocus flower particularly integral aspects of culture and identity for Minoan women. Figure 4: Linear B tablets Np 85 from the Room of the Chariot Tablets (a) and Np 856 from the Saffron in the Dye and Perfume Industries North Entrance Passage (b) at Knossos. The saffron ideogram is highlighted in yellow (after Day Saffron’s function as a dye is immediately 2011a:374, Fig. 2 and 375, Fig. 3). apparent when handling crocuses, for when contact is made with the pollen and stigmas, which allow for its specific identification.13 a brilliant yellow colour is left behind. The Perhaps more than a visual cue, this emphasis powerful yellow pigment of the styles is both may reflect the importance of the stigmas to water-soluble and resilient to light, colouring 19 those who harvested the crocus flower, for it up to 100,000 times its volume when diluted. is the stigmas which are made into saffron.14 Although the lack of written evidence from the By LMIA, the crocus appeared in naturalistic Bronze Age Aegean and the near-impossibility ceramic motifs that bore similarities to of textile preservation in this period render its synchronous appearance in frescoes, conclusive evidence non-existent, historical particularly the exaggeration of the stigmas.15 and iconographic evidence can shed light on In LMIB, crocus iconography reached its what must have been an important industry for peak, its artistic height visible in the detailed the Minoans. ‘crocus and festoon’ motif found on rhyta and vases in Crete and Cycladic islands (fig. 3).16 Saffron-coloured clothing is well-attested The flower shapes themselves are strikingly in Classical Greece where the plant was the similar to crocus forms in contemporaneous primary dye used to produce yellow cloth and wall-paintings, revealing the interconnected pigments. It was, however, an expensive luxury relationships between artistic media.17 because its time-consuming manufacture was set against its popular demand. As such, yellow By LMIII, the crocus flower became less came to be regarded as a symbol of wealth and popular as a decorative motif, but continued power, undoubtedly due to the ability of the 20 to be represented iconographically in the wearer to purchase such an expensive dye. ideograms of Linear B, the written language The epithet “kroko-,” popular in describing of the period. The appearance of the saffron various Greek heroes and heroines, may reflect ideogram (CROC) on 59 whole or partial this connection, conferring authority and tablets like those in Figure 4 is therefore status upon the wearer. Homer uses the epithet indicative of its economic and, as the evidence in relation to a divine being; by describing Eos’ below reveals, industrial importance. The garment as a “krokopeplos,” he connects the additional fact that it was the only spice to yellow-red garment of the goddess of dawn be measured by weight, in the same small, with the colours of her personification (Iliad intricate values used for gold, suggests that it 8.1). Indeed, this symbolism seems to have was considered to be a valuable commodity, extended beyond the Greek world, and in carefully monitored by the palace.18 Why, Mesopotamia, yellow was regarded as a colour 21 however, was saffron so valuable? Although its of divinity. Institute for European and Mediterranean Archaeology 45 Rachel Dewan Figure 6: Drawing of Register I in the foreign tribute scene from the tomb of Mencheperresonb at Thebes (Wachsmann 1987, Plate XXXVI, Fig.