The Influence of Politics and Culture on English Language Education in Japan During World War II and the Occupation by Mayumi Ohara Doctor of Philosophy 2016 Certificate of Original Authorship I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text. I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis. Production Note: Signature removed prior to publication. Mayumi Ohara 18 June, 2015 i Acknowledgement I owe my longest-standing debt of gratitude to my husband, Koichi Ohara, for his patience and support, and to my families both in Japan and the United States for their constant support and encouragement. Dr. John Buchanan, my principal supervisor, was indeed helpful with valuable suggestions and feedback, along with Dr. Nina Burridge, my alternate supervisor. I am thankful. Appreciation also goes to Charles Wells for his truly generous aid with my English. He tried to find time for me despite his busy schedule with his own work. I am thankful to his wife, Aya, too, for her kind understanding. Grateful acknowledgement is also made to the following people: all research participants, the gatekeepers, and my friends who cooperated with me in searching for potential research participants. I would like to dedicate this thesis to the memory of a research participant and my friend, Chizuko. In addition, a professional editor, Dr. Terry Fitzgerald, provided copyediting and proofreading services, according to the guidelines laid out in the university-endorsed national “Guidelines for Editing Research Theses.” Without support from these people along with others, I could not have completed this thesis. I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to every individual who helped me in any way. ii Table of Contents Certificate of Original Authorship .................................................................................................. i Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................ ii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. vi Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. vii Japanese Terms .............................................................................................................................. viii Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. x Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background of the Study ..................................................................................................... 2 1.2. Statement of Problem .......................................................................................................... 5 1.3. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 6 1.4. Researcher’s Note ............................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2 Framework of the Study .......................................................................................... 11 2.1. Culture .................................................................................................................................. 12 2.2. Power .................................................................................................................................... 19 2.3. Democracy ........................................................................................................................... 25 2.4. Politics and Education ....................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 3 History of Foreign Language Education in Japan ............................................... 31 Chapter 4 Review of the Historical Literature (1) .................................................................. 38 4.1. Introduction to the Chapter .............................................................................................. 38 4.2. Before the Occupation....................................................................................................... 39 Chapter 4 Review of the Historical Literature (2) .................................................................. 95 4.3. During the Occupation ...................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 5 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 149 5.1. Data Sources and Collection ........................................................................................... 149 5.2. Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 156 5.3. Ethical Issues ..................................................................................................................... 159 5.4. Problems Encountered in Collecting and Analysing Data ......................................... 159 Chapter 6 Findings .................................................................................................................... 163 iii 6.1. Theme Period: Before the Occupation ......................................................................... 164 6.2. Theme Period: The Occupation ..................................................................................... 179 6.3. Summary ............................................................................................................................ 201 Chapter 7 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 203 7.1. Before the Occupation..................................................................................................... 204 7.2. During the Occupation .................................................................................................... 223 7.3. Elitism and the Current State of English Language Education ................................. 246 7.4. Summary ............................................................................................................................ 251 Chapter 8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 258 8.1. Summary of the Study ...................................................................................................... 258 8.2. Relation to Prior Research .............................................................................................. 264 8.3. Limitations and Recommendations ............................................................................... 265 Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 267 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 294 iv List of Tables Table 2.1 Power Distance Index Values ................................................................................ 14 Table 2.2 Individualism Index Values .................................................................................... 16 Table 2.3 Individualism vs. Communitarianism ................................................................... 17 Table 2.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index Values ................................................................... 18 Table 2.5 Masculinity Index Values........................................................................................ 19 Table 3.1 Primary Foreign Languages Taught ...................................................................... 32 Table 4.1 Class Hours per Week: A partial Curriculum for Academic Course in Middle Schools, 1931 and 1943........................................................................................... 51 Table 4.2 The Number of Students in Department of English Language and Literature and the Entire School in Tokyo Arts and Sciences University, 1943 and 1944. ........................................................................................................................................................... 54 Table 4.3 The Number of Students in Humanities, Third Department (Bunka Dai3bu) and the Entire School in Tokyo Higher Normal School, 1943 and 1944 ....... 56 Table 4.4 The Percentage of Attendance of Elementary School (1873-1879) ................ 67 Table 4.5 Number of Units for each Category of the Materials ........................................ 87 Table 4.6 Percentages of Lower Secondary School Graduates Continuing onto Upper Secondary Schools ..............................................................................................