. i, WUOE (ixlw Technical Report Number 54 Volume 1 -, Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Sponsor: Bureau of Land Management — Alaska Outer ‘ Bering–Normn Pwdeum Development Scenarios Sociocultural Syst~ms Analysis The United States Department of the Interior was designated by the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Lands Act of 1953 to carry out the majority of the Act’s provisions for administering the mineral leasing and develop- ment of offshore areas of the United States under federal jurisdiction. Within the Department, the Bureau of Land Management (ELM) has the responsibility to meet requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) as well as other legislation and regulations dealing with the effects of offshore development. In Alaska, unique cultural differences and climatic conditions create a need for developing addi- tional socioeconomic and environmental information to improve OCS deci- sion making at all governmental levels. In fulfillment of its federal responsibilities and with an awareness of these additional information needs, the BLM has initiated several investigative programs, one of which is the Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program (SESP). The Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program is a multi-year research effort which attempts to predict and evaluate the effects of Alaska OCS Petroleum Development upon the physical, social, and economic environ- ments within the state. The overall methodology is divided into three broad research components. The first component identifies an alterna- tive set of assumptions regarding the location, the nature, and the timing of future petroleum events and related activities. In this component, the program takes into account the particular needs of the petroleum industry and projects the human, technological, economic, and environmental offshore and onshore development requirements of the regional petroleum industry. The second component focuses on data gathering that identifies those’ quantifiable and qualifiable facts by which OCS-induced changes can be assessed. The critical community and regional components are identified and evaluated. Current endogenous and exogenous sources of change and functional organization among different sectors of community and region- al life are analyzed. Susceptible community relationships, values, activities, and processes also are included. The third research component focuses OP an evaluation of the changes that could occur due to the potential oil and gas development. Impact evaluation concentrates on an analysis of the impacts at the statewide, regional, and local level. In general, program products are sequentially arranged in accordance with BLM!s proposed OCS lease sale schedule, so that information is timely to decisionmaking. Reports are available through the National Technical Information Service, and the BLM has a limited number of copies available through the Alaska OCS Office. Inquiries for informa- tion should be directed to: Program Coordinator (COAR), Socioeconomic Studies Program, Alaska OCS Office, P. O. Box 11S9, Anchorage, Alaska 99510. FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 54 Contract No: AA550-CT6-61 Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program BERING-NORTON PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT SCENARIOS AND SOCIOCULTURAL IMPACTS ANALYSIS VOLUME I Prepared by LINDA J. ELLANNA Prepared for Peat, Marwick, Mitchell, & Co. and the Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Office April 30, 1980 NOTICE This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Us. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Office, in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for its content or use thereof. Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program Bering-Norton Petroleum Development Scenarios and Sociocultural Impacts Analysis Pyeoared by Linda J. Ellanna Contract No: AA550-CT6-6? April 30, 1980 TABLE OF CONTENTS: VOLUME I LIST OF MAPS . VI LIST OF TABLES . VII I. INTRODUCTION . 1 Context of Study . 1 DESCRIPTION OF ;T(JD; : : . 1 INTEGRATION AND RELEVANCY OF STUDY TO ALASKA OCS PROGRAM . 6 THE SETTING . 8 STUDY DESIGN LIiII+A+IbN< : : : : : : : : : : 1 : : : . 17 Major Variables of Sociocultural Change: Impact Categor es, Standards, and Assumptions . 21 INTRODUCTION . 21 IMPACTCATEGORIES . 0 . 23 ASSUMPTIONS . 26 Seaand La;d; “Their”“ ; “ Impii;ation;“ “ : : : : : : : . 26 Economic Systems . 28 Social Systems . 34 Political Systems . 36 Interethnic Attitudes and Relationships . 40 Indicators of Response to Change . 41 9“ II. METHODOLOGY. 43 Theoretical Perspectives . 43 Research Strategies . 50 FIELDWORK: PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION AND INFORMAL DIS- CUSSIONS . lil LITERARY RE~E~RiH” : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : . 53 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS . 57 Organization of Study.... 60 SEQUENCE OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES . 60 ORGANIZATION 0F9ATA . 60 111. TRADITIONAL ESKIMO ADAPTATIONS . 0 . 63 Relevancy to Contemporary Baseline . 63 Bering Strait.. 66 TERRITORIAL AND LINGUISTIC BOUNDARIES . , . 66 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS . 71 TTT 111 -. SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS AND VALUES . SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: FAMILY AND ~OPiMtiNiT~ . ;; Norton Sound . 91 TERRITORIAL”A~D”LiN&iStId EOtiNbARI&” : : . 91 SETTLE!IENT PATTERNS . SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS LiNiI iAlhES’ : : : : : . ;? SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: FAMILY AND COMMUNITY . 100 Yukon Delta. , . 103 TERRITORIAL AND LINGUISTIC BOUNDARIES . 103 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS . 106 SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS AND VALUES . 0 . 108 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: FAMILY AND COMMUNITY , . 109 Interrelationships between Aboriginal Populations . 111 Iv. THE HISTORICAL PERIOD: RESPONSES TO CHANGE . 117 The Exploration Period and Early Trade . 117 The Commercial Whaling Period. 129 The Territorial Era: the Introduction of External Control. 141 Missionary Activity, Formal Education, and Reindeer Herding 146 Mineral Exploration . , . ,,... 173 The Development of Commercial Fisheries . 185 WorldWar II . .,,. 195 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: the Restructuring of Economic and Political Systems . 203 v. CONTEMPORARY SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEMS . 213 Sea and Land; Their Implications . 213 CULTURAL VALUE-S . 213 UTILIZATION PATTERNS . 213 POTENTIAL OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL . 221 Economic Systems . 236 SUBSISTENCE . 236 Subsistence Patterns and Their Sicmificance . 238 Subsistence Issues . 303 THE CASH ECONOMY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT . 315 Iv Commercial Fishing and Trapping . 316 Reindeer Herding . , . ., . 325 Eskimo Art and Craft Production . ,. 332 The Government Sector . 336 Native Organizations . 347 INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SUBSISTENCE iND IN THE ECONOMY . 350 ATTITUDES TOMARDS”E~OliOMI~ tiE~E~O;M;N~ . 355 Social Systems . 364 FAMILY. HOUSEiOiD: ~ND kIiIStiI; : : : : . 365 THECOfiMUNITY ; . 369 FORMAL HUMAN DEiIVERY SYSTEMS . 374 Educational Delivery. 375 Health Delivery . 381 Housing . 385 Political Systems . 391 THE POLITICS OF NOME AS A REGIONAL CENTER . 392 REGIONAL GOVERNMENTAL SYSTEMS . 406 THE ESKIMO WALRUS AND WHALING COMM1<SiONS. 410 BERING SEA FISHERMEN’S ASSOCIATION . 413 NON-REGIONAL GOVERNMENTAL INFLUENCE . 414 Interethnic Attitudes and Relationships . 416 REGIONAL AND COMMUNITY ETHNIC COMPOSITIONS . 417 SOURCES AND DIVERSITY OF INTERETHNIC CONTACT AND CONFLICT . 418 Indicators of Response to Change . 427 NEGATIVE INDICES . 428 POSITIVE INDICES . 434 References . , . 441 v Page 1: Bering Strait-Norton Sound Area . 2-3 11: St. Lawrence Island. 4 III: The Bering Straits Native Corporation . 205 IV: The Calista Corporation.. ..208 LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Community Population Totals . 15 II. Ethnic Distribution of Study Area Populations . 16 III. Bering Strait Tribes . 69 Iv. Norton Sound Tribes . 93 v. Reindeer on the Seward Peninsula, 1892-1915 . 165 VI. Reindeer Herd Operation, Government and Private, 948 . 169 VII. Reindeer Herd Operation, Government and Private, 958 . 169 VIII. Reindeer Herd Operation, Government and Private, 968 . ?70 Ix. Commercial Salmon Harvest, Yukon Delta, 1918-1971 . ...0 192 x. Biotic Resources Utilized by Residents of the Bering Strait/Norton Sound Study Area . 241 . XI. State Public Assistance for Selected Villages, 1970-1977 . 345 VII The researcher would like to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of George K. Sherrod, Lillian K. Erickson, Joan Gait, Agnes Brown, and the residents of the study area in completing this document. LJ E 9 9 e I. INTRODUCTION e Context of Study ● ’ DESCRIPTION OF STUDY 9 Th,is is the first of two studies designed to analytically describe the sociocultural systems of the coastal areas adjoining the Bering-Norton Outer Continental Shelf (hereafter referred to as OCS) and to subsequently ● assess the potential imr)acts of projected OCS petroleum development on these sociocultural systems. These studies have been undertaken in re- sponse to Tentative Sale #57, presently anticipated to occur in September ● of 1982. The coastal and insular areas either adjacent to and/or poten- tially affected by the Bering-Norton OCS lease sale (i.e. the study area) extend from the coastal village of Shishmaref in the north to and in- ‘ ● eluding the entire coastline of the Seward Peninsula, Norton Sound, and the Yukon Delta to the south, including the Bering Strait islands of Little Diomede (Inalik), King (Ukiuvok), St. Lawrence (Sevoukak), and ● Sledge (Ayak) (see Map I & 11). The focus of this study is basically a relatively qualitative analysis e of the rural, Primarily but not exclusively I~upiat or Yuit (northern and southern Eskimo respectively) sociocultural systems of this area, and the articulation of