The Construction of the Gang in British Columbia: Mafioso, Gangster, or Thug? An Examination of the Uniqueness of the BC Gangster Phenomenon By Keiron McConnell M.Sc. Public Order Policing, Leicester University, 2004 B.G.S., Open University of BC, 2002 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Policing, Security and Community Safety John Grieve Centre Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities © Keiron McConnell 2015 London Metropolitan University September 2015 Abstract This thesis explores the structure, demographics, and history of gangs in British Columbia (BC), Canada, through a social constructionist lens. The purpose of this research is for the reader to consider the current state of gangs in BC as inherently different from other places in the world, to assist in understanding why there may be misconceptions, and to promote the research and implementation of more appropriate context-specific interventions. Building on previous work conducted as a Vancouver Police officer of over 27 years, I participated in field observations with gang units in Toronto and Hobbema, Canada; Chicago and Los Angeles, USA; and London, England. I also examined gang typologies and definitions in academic literature as a segment of the historical context of gang research and highlight how these bodies of literature contribute to the social construction of gangs. A historical review of media-reported gang violence in BC from 1903 to 2012 demonstrates that gang violence is not a new phenomenon, and its history is an essential element in the constructed concept of the gang. As well, I conducted semi-structured interviews with participants who either police gangs, work with gangs, or were former gang members to get their perspectives on the issue. The research findings highlight that gangs in BC are distinct from other locations. Whereas traditional at-risk youth dominate gangs elsewhere, BC has a large number of youth involved in gangs who do not appear to possess the typical antecedents to gang involvement. Because of these differences, it is crucial that anti-gang initiatives and policies be adapted to the BC context to effectively reduce gang activity and ultimately eliminate gangs. Keywords: gangs, British Columbia, constructionism, social construction, Vancouver Police 2 Acknowledgments Chicago Police Department: Sergeant M. Little, Sergeant N. Zodo, Officer P. Kelly, Officer J. Zapata, Officer C. Stipanov, Officer M. Cruz, Deputy Chief L. Schmit, Officer R. Wrights, Officer L. Willems, Officer R. Carl, Officer B. Garcia, Officer G. Arzola, Officer M. Galligan, Officer P. Bowery and Officer G. Klimaszewski. Thank you for sharing the challenging streets that you police as the “jump out boys.” Hobbema Royal Canadian Mounted Police: Constable M. Rondeau, Constable K. Brown, Constable C. Norbert, Constable J. Sutherland, Corporal L. Hammond, Sergeant S. Boutin, S. Vandewal, Constable P. Cardinal, and Inspector C. Wood. Thank you for sharing with me the unique challenges of policing your community. Toronto Police Service: Sergeant G. Leung. Thank you for sharing with me the streets of Canada’s largest city. London Metropolitan Police: Chief Inspector S. Ellen, Police Constable H. Clark, Sergeant N. Griffin, and Detective Sergeant R. Higgins. Thank you for sharing with me the grittier side of one of the world’s leading cities. Los Angeles Police Department: Sergeant C. Woodle, Officer S. Brown, Sergeant N. Milazzo, Sergeant M. Steward, and Officer F. Bailey. Thank you for sharing with me your stories from the City of Angels. National Gang Crime Research Centre: Dr. G. Knox, Dr. T. Negola, Dr. A. Papachristos, Dr. A. Bains, Dr. S. Harding, Dr. J. Densley and Dr. D. L. Gilbertson. Thank you for your wisdom, the Thrasher Award, and letting the Canadian into the club. Kwantlen Polytechnic University: T. Wade, Dr. L. Kitt, Dr. P. Jonas, Dr. M. Larsen, Dr. W. Deisman, J. Horner, Dr. G. Jenion, Dr. E. Zellerer, Dr. D. Lyons, and Dr. G. Bhayani. Thank you for your words of encouragement, guidance, and confidence in allowing me into your world of academia. Simon Fraser University: Dr. C. Griffiths, Dr. K. Descormiers, Dr. R. Parent, Dr. M. Bouchard, and Dr. V. Spicer. Thank you for the debates and encouragement. Douglas College: C. Hotel and H. Currie. Thank you for always making me feel that I belonged in academia and had something to offer the students. Heidi, thank you also for helping me understand the big words. I know you will hate this. 3 Royal Roads University: Dr. M. Young, Dr. E. Schellhammer, M. Machan, and S. Grant-Warmald. Thank you for your continued support of my work. Vancouver Police: Chief Constable J. Chu, Chief Constable A. Palmer, Superintendent M. Porteous, Inspector M. Serr, Staff Sergeant D. Dube, Sergeant M. Clarke, Sergeant P. “Spike” Sadler, Sergeant R. Bertolo, Sergeant B. Spearn, Sergeant “Ike” Isaksson, Sergeant M. Bragagnolo, Staff Sergeant T. Thomas, Sergeant D. Richards, and Detective I. “Bug” Thurber (R.I.P.). No professional doctorate can be completed absent of support from one’s profession. Thank you. A special thanks to the “Bug,” who was one of the most self-educated men I have ever met, who never once saw me and didn’t ask or encourage me to become a doctor; you are so missed, pal. “The Crew”—Vancouver Police Gang Squad: Sergeant W. Tutkaluke, Detective J. Sran, Detective K. Patel, Detective D. Robertson, Detective B. Steele, Detective E. Lott, Detective E. Davis, Detective T. Doolittle, Detective S. Avelar, Detective A. Charles, Detective R. Jaswal, Detective A. Van Erd, Detective P. Gagnon, Detective P. Campbell, Detective T. Dodds, and J. Tsang. Thank you. You have all supported me in some way, from knowing which days to leave me alone to inspiring me to continue every day at work so that we no longer need to stand over dead young men. The citizens of Vancouver are fortunate to have you as their gang cops. Supervisors: Dr. M. Gilles, Dr. K. Stenson, and Dr. T. Young. Thank you for the countless edits, guidance, support, patience, redirection, and encouragement. This work could not have been completed without you, and I will forever be grateful. Cohort: D. Aidoo, P. Crane, F. Taylor, C. Onugha, and V. Iyalla. Thank you for the laughs, the tears, the shoulders, and the support. We all at one point thought it was time to throw in the towel, and we supported one another through it. I’ll fondly remember the hours at “Metro,” where the phrase, “Just one, I am not stopping” was heard (Londonese translation: “I am having only one drink and then I have to go.”). Students: Thank you for coming to class and encouraging me to continue my research. Families of the murdered victims: Words cannot do justice, and all I can say is that I hope my research will help reduce the number of young people dying in our community. 4 Former gang members: Thank you for sharing your choices so that others may learn from your bad ones and your good ones. Family: To my children Hugh and Callum, thanks for hanging out with Daddy in the countless hours spent in the office. I hope that one day you will find something that you are as passionate about as I am. To my parents, Theresa and Stuart, George and Bernice, thank you for your years of guidance and encouragement. To my wife Cheryl, without your continued love and support, and encouragement to take a break, this project would never have been accomplished. 5 Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 2 Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................ 3 Contents ....................................................................................................................... 6 List of Tables ............................................................................................................... 8 List of Photographs ...................................................................................................... 8 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 10 Research Focus ...................................................................................................... 10 BC Demographics .................................................................................................. 12 Overview ................................................................................................................ 14 Chapter 1: Social Constructionism and the Gang ...................................................... 16 Situating Social Construction Theory in the Discussion ....................................... 17 Influence of Other Theories on Social Constructionism ....................................... 19 Social Construction Theory ................................................................................... 22 Strict and Contextualised Constructionism in Defining Gangs ............................. 24 Definition of a Gang .............................................................................................. 26 Impact of the Construction of Gangs Within BC’s Context .................................. 31 The Construction of Gangs in BC by the Police .................................................... 32 The Legal Construction of Gangs in BC ............................................................... 35 Formal Construction of Gangs by Criminal Intelligence Analysts