1 2 3 4 The Transatlantic Slave Trade 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 [First Page] 12 13 [-1], (1) 14 15 Lines: 0 to 9 16 17 ——— 18 * 455.0pt PgVar ——— 19 Normal Page 20 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 22 23 [-1], (1) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page i / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 [-2], (2) 14 15 Lines: 9 to 10 16 17 ——— 18 0.0pt PgVar ——— 19 Normal Page 20 PgEnds: T X 21 E 22 23 [-2], (2) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page ii / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 2 3 4 The Transatlantic 5 6 7 8 Slave Trade 9 10 11 A History, revised edition 12 13 [-3], (3) 14 15 Lines: 10 to 32 16 17 ——— 18 0.0pt PgVar ——— 19 James A. Rawley Normal Page 20 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 with Stephen D. Behrendt 22 23 [-3], (3) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 university of nebraska press 39 lincoln and london BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page iii / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 © 1981, 2005 by James A. Rawley 2 All rights reserved 3 Manufactured in the United States of America 4 ⅜ϱ 5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 6 Rawley, James A. 7 The transatlantic slave trade: 8 a history / James A. Rawley 9 with Stephen D. Behrendt.—Rev. ed. p. cm. 10 Includes bibliographical references and index. 11 isbn 0-8032-3961-0 (cloth: alk. paper) 12 1. Slave trade—History. 13 I. Behrendt, Stephen D. [-4], (4) 14 II. Title. 15 ht985.r38 2005 382'.44'09—dc22 Lines: 32 to 81 16 2004028349 ——— 17 Set in Minion by Bob Reitz. 18 Designed by R. W. Boeche. * 260.30602pt PgVar ——— 19 Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc. Normal Page 20 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 22 23 [-4], (4) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page iv / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 2 3 4 For Ann 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 [-5], (5) 14 15 Lines: 81 to 86 16 17 ——— 18 * 455.67001pt PgVar ——— 19 Normal Page 20 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 22 23 [-5], (5) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page v / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 [-6], (6) 14 15 Lines: 86 to 87 16 17 ——— 18 0.0pt PgVar ——— 19 Normal Page 20 PgEnds: T X 21 E 22 23 [-6], (6) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page vi / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 contents 2 3 4 List of Illustrations viii 5 List of Tables ix 6 Acknowledgments xi 7 List of Abbreviations xiii 8 Maps xiv 9 Introduction 1 10 1. The Early Years of the Slave Trade 8 11 2. The Portuguese Pioneers 18 12 3. Spain and the Slave Trade 45 13 [-7], (7) 4. The Dutch and the Danes 69 14 5. France: The Early Years 91 15 6. France in the Eighteenth Century 109 Lines: 87 to 163 16 7. England Gains Ascendancy 129 17 ——— 8. Bristol 148 18 * 76.16pt PgVar 9. Liverpool 166 ——— 19 10. London and the Normal Page 20 Eighteenth-Century Slave Trade 189 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 11. The Economics of the Slave Trade 212 22 12. The Middle Passage 243 23 [-7], (7) 13. Americans Enter the Slave Trade 264 24 14. The American Dimensions and 25 the Massachusetts Contribution 277 26 15. Rhode Island 305 27 16. The American Slave Market 331 28 17. A Summing Up 360 29 30 Notes 375 31 RecentWorksonthe 32 Transatlantic Slave Trade 419 33 Index 427 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page vii / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 illustrations 2 3 Following page 168 4 Slave sale advertisements 5 The slave ship Brookes 6 The city of Loango 7 The English fort at Gambia 8 9 10 11 12 13 [-8], (8) 14 15 Lines: 163 to 184 16 17 ——— 18 * 406.98001pt PgVar ——— 19 Normal Page 20 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 22 23 [-8], (8) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page viii / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 tables 2 3 4 1.1. Curtin’s Estimate of Slave Imports 5 for the Whole Period of the Trade, 1441–1866 16 6 1.2. Eltis’s Estimate of Slave Imports during 7 the Era of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1519–1866 16 8 2.1. Portuguese Slave Imports, 1451–1866 21 9 3.1. Estimated Slave Imports into Spanish America 48 10 4.1. Dutch Slave Exports from Africa, 1625–1803 82 11 6.1. French Slave Exports from Africa, 1761–1810 112 12 6.2. French Slave Exports from Africa, 1711–93 113 13 6.3. Documented Transatlantic Slaving [-9], (9) 14 Departures from France, 1713–92 118 15 7.1. Estimated British Slave Trade Exports, 1690–1807 143 Lines: 184 to 248 16 7.2. Estimated Percentage African Regional 17 Distribution of the British Slave Trade, 1690–1807 144 ——— 18 7.3. Slave Imports into British America, 1619–1808 145 * 140.58002pt PgVar ——— 19 7.4. Estimated Percentage Distribution Normal Page 20 of British Imports, 1680–1808 145 * PgEnds: PageBreak 21 8.1. British Ships Clearing for Africa, 1730–69 155 22 8.2. Average Annual Clearances, 1772–1807 155 23 9.1. Annual Clearances in Tons from [-9], (9) 24 Liverpool, London, and Bristol, 1789–95 178 25 15.1. Rhode Island Slaving Voyages to Africa, 1709–1807 309 26 15.2. De Wolf Family Slaving Voyages, 1784–1807 329 27 17.1. Estimated Slave Imports into 28 the Americas by Importing Region, 1519–1866 368 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page ix / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 [-10], (10) 14 15 Lines: 248 to 249 16 17 ——— 18 0.0pt PgVar ——— 19 Normal Page 20 PgEnds: T X 21 E 22 23 [-10], (10) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page x / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 2 3 4 acknowledgments 5 6 7 8 9 10 In the writing of this book over many years I have incurred heavy obligations. It 11 [First Page] 12 is appropriate that I should acknowledge my debts and at the same time excuse 13 all my creditors for any errors that may appear in these pages. First of all, this [-11], (1) 14 book was begun at the suggestion of an English scholar and friend, Gordon 15 Mingay of the University of Kent at Canterbury, who throughout has shown a Lines: 0 to 17 16 warm interest in the project. 17 I owe very special thanks to David Richardson of the University of Hull, who ——— 18 shared his research and unrivaled knowledge of British archival sources with 5.0pt PgVar ——— 19 me; to the late Richard B. Sheridan of the University of Kansas, upon whose Normal Page 20 research both published and unpublished I have drawn; to W. R. Higgins of PgEnds: T X 21 the National Endowment for the Humanities, who has kindly furnished me his E 22 numerous unpublished scholarly papers on the South Carolina slave trade; and 23 to Joseph C. Miller of the University of Virginia, who has allowed me use of [-11], (1) 24 his scholarly papers before publication. Professors Richardson, Sheridan, and 25 Miller generously gave sections of my manuscript an intensive criticism from 26 which I have greatly benefited. Other authorities who read parts of the man- 27 uscript and provided criticism are Ralph Austen of the University of Chicago, 28 Johannes Postma of Mankato State University, and Darold Wax of Oregon State 29 University. Philip D. Curtin of The Johns Hopkins University helpfully read a 30 collateral article on the eighteenth-century London slave trade. Pierre Boulle 31 of McGill University read the chapters on the French slave trade and offered 32 critical commentary. 33 Other scholars who have contributed in various ways include the late Roger 34 Anstey of the University of Kent, the late Walter Minchinton of the University of 35 Exeter, Lawrence A. Harper of the University of California at Berkeley, and my 36 colleagues in the History Department at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. 37 The University of Nebraska has generously supported my research through 38 the University Research Council, the Woods Fellowship program, and through 39 the interest taken in this work by Deans Melvin George and Max Larsen. The BOB — University of Nebraska Press / Page xi / / The Transatlantic Slave Trade / James A. Rawley 1 Rockefeller Foundation enabled me to write some of these chapters at its Study 2 and Conference Center, the Villa Serbelloni, Bellagio, Italy, where solitude alter- 3 nating with stimulating discussions among a diversity of scholars gave me new 4 perspectives.