An investigation into the placement of disarticulated human remains into shell middens during prehistory Emily Rebecca Hellewell PhD University of York Archaeology October 2015 Abstract The aim of this thesis was to critically evaluate the evidence for disarticulated human remains in shell middens, using sites in northwest Europe dating to the Late Mesolithic/Early Neolithic as case studies. Traditionally, disarticulated remains placed in shell middens have been overlooked and assumed to be the result of burial disturbance with little in-depth analysis to the plausibility of this as an interpretation. The research considers whether it is possible to determine that the remains occurred through disturbance to inhumations, and to assess to what extent it is possible to reconstruct the processes of deposition of disarticulated remains. A new methodology has been developed with specific emphasis on identifying what taphonomic processes may have led to commingled human remains to be found at shell midden sites. Six hypothetical bone profile diagrams are presented, based on differing taphonomic processes known to affect burial remains. These hypothetical diagrams then provide comparative models to assess the evidence presented in the case studies. Three case studies located on the coast of western Scotland; Cnoc Coig, An Corran and Carding Mill Bay, demonstrate that it is likely that the placement of human remains into ancient shell middens emerged as part of secondary burial practices employed around the time of the Mesolithic/ Neolithic transition, while a Danish case study, Havnø, highlights a potential change in practices occurring from the Mesolithic into the Neolithic. Critically, the close assessment of the disarticulated remains provides strong evidence that disarticulated remains in shell middens are likely to be the result of more complex burial processes than previously thought. 2 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 2 Contents .................................................................................................................................. 3 List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... 10 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... 12 Preface .................................................................................................................................. 18 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 19 Author’s declaration .............................................................................................................. 21 Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 22 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 22 1.2 Research aims, questions, objectives and approach ............................................................ 23 1.3 Human remains in shell middens- a worldwide phenomenon ............................................. 24 1.3.1 An overview of shell midden research .......................................................................... 24 1.3.2 Nature of human remains in shell middens .................................................................. 25 1.3.3 Key research themes for human remains in shell midden research............................. 30 1.3.4 Problems in researching human remains ..................................................................... 33 1.4 Disarticulated human remains in shell middens, an unexplored phenomenon ................... 35 1.5 Continuity and change at the Mesolithic/Neolithic transition ............................................. 38 1.6 Choice of case study sites ..................................................................................................... 40 1.7 Structure of this study........................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2: Osteological Methodology ..................................................................................... 43 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 43 2.2 Recording of human remains ...................................................................................................... 44 2.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 44 2.2.2 Taxa identification ................................................................................................................ 44 2.2.3 Terminology ......................................................................................................................... 45 2.2.4 Recording ............................................................................................................................. 45 2.2.5 Ageing .................................................................................................................................. 47 2.2.6 Sexing ................................................................................................................................... 49 3 2.2.7 Stature estimation and osteological measurements ........................................................... 50 2.2.8 Taphonomy .......................................................................................................................... 51 2.2.8.1 Burning .......................................................................................................................... 51 2.2.8.2 Weathering ................................................................................................................... 51 2.2.8.3 Cutmarks ....................................................................................................................... 52 2.2.8.4 Gnawing ........................................................................................................................ 52 2.2.8.5 Root/fungal activity....................................................................................................... 52 2.2.8.6 Peri-mortem breakage .................................................................................................. 53 2.2.8.7 Other cultural modification .......................................................................................... 53 2.3 Assessment of skeletal element frequencies.............................................................................. 53 2.4 Dating .......................................................................................................................................... 55 2.4.1 Calibration ............................................................................................................................ 55 2.4.2 Marine reservoir effect ........................................................................................................ 56 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 57 Chapter Three: Taphonomy of burial and disarticulation ......................................................... 59 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 59 3.2 Ethnographic examples of dealing with the dead ...................................................................... 59 3.3 Taphonomy ................................................................................................................................. 62 3.4 Human taphonomy of burials ..................................................................................................... 63 3.4.1 Primary and secondary burials............................................................................................. 63 3.4.2 Disarticulation of the skeleton ............................................................................................. 65 3.4.3 Cannibalism .......................................................................................................................... 65 3.4.4 Cremation ............................................................................................................................ 68 3.5 Non-human taphonomy of burials.............................................................................................. 69 3.5.1 Decomposition and intrinsic bone survival .......................................................................... 69 3.5.2 Disarticulation ...................................................................................................................... 71 3.5.3 Scavenging ........................................................................................................................... 72 3.5.4 Weathering .......................................................................................................................... 73 3.6 Burial processes .........................................................................................................................