The Russian migration regime and migrants' experiences: the case of non-Russian nationals from former Soviet republics by Larisa Kosygina A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Centre for Russian and East European Studies School of Government and Society College of Social Science The University of Birmingham 2009 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Acknowledgements This work would be impossible without the people who agreed to participate in my research. I am extremely grateful for their time and trust. I am also very grateful to the International Fellowship Program of the Ford Foundation which provided funding for my work on this thesis. I want to thank my supervisors – Prof. Hilary Pilkington and Dr. Deema Kaneff for their patience, understanding, and critical guidance. It was a real pleasure to work with them. Within CREES at the University of Birmingham I would like to thank Dr. Derek Averre for his work as a Director of Post graduate Research Programme. My thanks also go to Marea Arries, Tricia Carr and Veta Douglas for their technical assistance and eagerness to help. I want to thank Marta Slaska for her assistance with the library research. My friends – Julie, Tanya and Gulya – were important sources of encouragement during my time in the UK. I am very happy that I have such friends in my life. I am also very grateful to Anaximandro Gomez for his care and support for the two last years of my work on the thesis. My thanks go to Eve Richards and Vickie Hudson for their help with proofreading my thesis. I am also grateful to Julie for final proofreading of my thesis. I am extremely grateful to my parents for their financial help which allowed me to finish this work. I also want to thank Timur Ismagilov who, by sorting out my problems in Novosibirsk, allowed me to focus on my studies in the UK. Special thanks also go to Ul’yana Maksyuta who helped me to understand myself. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to the memory of my grandmother. I will always remember her unconditional love and support. This thesis explores how the Russian migration regime is reflected in migrants’ experiences and identities. The conceptual framework developed in the thesis is informed by the theory of structuration. On the basis of this theory and the analysis of primary empirical data, the thesis seeks to refine the understanding of the concepts of ‘migration regime’, ‘social exclusion’ and ‘territorialisation’ of identity. The empirical research conducted for the thesis focuses on the period 2002-2009 and on the experiences and identities of a particular group of migrants, namely, former Soviet citizens from former republics of the USSR, who are currently living in post-Soviet Russia without Russian citizenship. The thesis explores and analyses, on the one hand, the structures which constitute the Russian migration regime and, on the other, the stories told by interviewed migrants about their lives in Russia. The thesis argues that the current migration regime of the Russian Federation represents ‘a differentiated system of othering’ and shows that this system is informed by two processes – nation-building and racialisation. It also argues that differentiations institutionalised in the Russian migration regime affect the social exclusion of migrants and through this the ‘territorialisation’ of their identities. Table of Contents List of Tables, Figures and Photos iv Glossary of Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 Existing Academic Frameworks 4 Conceptual Frameworks 6 Research Methodology and Methods 8 Thesis Outline 10 Chapter 1 The Theoretical Framework and Key Concepts 13 Introduction 13 1.1 In search of a theoretical framework 14 1.1.1 Migration as a social phenomenon: general remarks 14 1.1.2. Theorization of migration: an overview 15 1.1.3. The structuration perspective: discussion and applications 18 1.1.3.1 Structure/agency relationships: discussion of structuration 18 1.1.3.2 Theory of structuration: applications in Russian and Migration studies 26 1.2 Key concepts used in the research 30 1.2.1 Migration regime 30 1.2.2 Other and othering 32 1.2.3 Citizenship, nation-state and differentiation of non-nationals 34 1.2.4 Racialisation 37 1.2.5 Social exclusion 40 1.2.6 Social networks 44 1.2.7 ‘Territorialisation’ of identity 47 1.3 Explanatory scheme 50 Conclusion 52 Chapter 2 Methodology, Methods and Ethics of the Research 54 Introduction 54 2.1 Ontology, epistemology and methodology of the research 54 2.2 Stages of fieldwork: location in space and time 58 2.3 Methods of the research: design, data gathering and analysis 61 2.3.1 Semi-structured interviews 62 2.3.1.1 The choice of method and designing the interview guide 62 2.3.1.2 Sampling and sample 63 2.3.1.3 The process of interview 65 2.3.1.4 Analysis of migrants’ stories and their incorporation into the thesis 67 2.3.2 Expert interviews 67 2.3.3 Informal conversations and observations in the field 70 2.3.4 Analysis of the legislation 71 i 2.3.5 Textual analysis of the representations of migrants and migration in Russian newspapers 72 2.3.6 Analysis of secondary data 74 2.4 Research in and after the field: some issues for reflection 75 2.4.1 Access to respondents: the issues raised from interaction with the gatekeepers 76 2.4.2 Interviewer-interviewee relations: the case of migrants 79 2.4.3 Presenting the research results and protecting the research participants 81 Conclusion 82 Chapter 3 Contextualizing Migrants’ Experiences in Russia: Statistics, Organizations and the Migration Regime 84 Introduction 84 3.1 Migration to Russia from other former republics of the USSR 85 3.1.1. Analysis of official statistics on net migration 85 3.1.2. Overview of surveys on ‘illegal’ migration 92 3.1.3. The broad picture and the hypothesis derived from the analysis 94 3.2. Collective social actors reproducing the Russian migration regime 95 3.2.1 State bodies 97 3.2.2 Relations between NGOs and the state 101 3.2.3 Centralisation and securitisation in 1990s and 2000s: continuity and differences 105 3.3. The Russian migration regime as ‘a differentiated system of othering’ 106 3.3.1 Legislative framework of the migration regime 107 3.3.1.1 Regulating Admission and Residence 107 3.3.1.2 Access to rights 112 3.3.1.3 Acquisition of Russian citizenship 114 3.3.1.4 Admission of compatriots 117 3.3.1.5 Changes in the legislative framework of the Russian migration regime: summary 118 3.3.2. Discursive framework: the representation of migration and migrants 120 3.3.2.1 Representation of migration 121 3.3.2.2 Representation of migrants 126 3.3.2.3 Perception of migration and migrants by the local population: Review of research on public opinion 133 3.3.3 Differentiations presented in discursive and legislative frameworks of the Russian migration regime and migrants’ access to resources 136 Conclusion 137 Chapter 4 Social Exclusion as a Process of Negotiation: Migrants in the Receiving Society 139 Introduction 139 4.1 Russia: Social exclusion and non-Russian nationals from former Soviet republics 140 4.1.1 Social exclusion in the domain of state regulations 140 4.1.1.1 The case of ‘legal’ migrants 140 ii 4.1.1.2 The case of ‘illegal’ migrants 143 4.1.2 Social exclusion and the domain of the economy 145 4.1.2.1 Working migrants 146 4.1.2.1.1 Participation in the formal economy 146 4.1.2.1.2 Participation in the informal economy 148 4.1.2.2 Non-working migrants: ways to access resources in the receiving society 150 4.1.3 Social networks and exclusion of migrants from the receiving society 151 4.1.3.1 The use of social networks for entering and securing participation in the domain of state regulations 152 4.1.3.2 Social networks and participation in the economy 153 4.1.3.3 Social networks: composition of social connections 155 4.1.4 Non-Russian nationals in Russia: discussion of the research results in the context of wider literature on social networking 156 4.2 Social exclusion and racialisation in Russia: the case of the former Soviet citizens 157 4.2.1 Racialisation and social exclusion in the domain of state regulations 159 4.2.2 Racialisation and social exclusion in the economy 163 4.2.3 Social networking: racialisation and ethnicity 164 4.2.3.1 Racialisation and social networking 164 4.2.3.2 Ethnicity and social networks 167 4.2.4 Differentiation of people on the grounds of their appearance: locating the research results in the broader context of the Russian situation 169 Conclusion 171 Chapter 5 The ‘Territorialisation’ of Identity: Past, Present and Future 174 Introduction 174 5.1 ‘Territorialisation’ of identity and memories of the past 175 5.2 ‘Territorialisation’ of identity and the perception of the present: understandings of social exclusion experienced in the receiving society 181 5.2.1 ‘Territorialisation’ of identity and social exclusion in the domain of state regulation 181 5.2.1.1 The case of ‘legal’ migrants 182 5.2.1.2 The case of ‘illegal’ migrants 184 5.2.1.3 The case of non-Russian citizens