arts Article Greek Painters for the Dominicans or Trecento at the Bosphorus? Once again about the Style and Iconography of the Wall Paintings in the Former Dominican Church of St. Paul in Pera Rafał Quirini-Popławski Department of History of Art, Jagiellonian University, ul. Grodzka 53, 31-001 Kraków, Poland; [email protected] Received: 20 August 2019; Accepted: 27 September 2019; Published: 11 October 2019 Abstract: The recently discovered wall paintings of the Dominican church of St. Paul are perhaps the most fascinating part of the artistic heritage of Pera, the former Genoese colony at the Bosphorus. According to the researchers analyzing the fragments discovered in 1999–2007, they follow Byzantine iconographic tradition and were executed by Greek painters representing Paleologan style close to the decoration of the Chora church. After extensive discoveries in 2012 it was made possible to describe many more fragments of fresco and mosaic decoration and to make a preliminary identification of its iconography, which appeared to be very varied in character. Many features are typical of Latin art, not known in Byzantine tradition, some even have a clearly polemical, anti-Greek character. The analysis of its iconography, on a broad background of the Byzantine paintings in Latin churches, does not answer the question if it existed and what could be the goal of creating such paintings. There is a high probability that we are dealing with choice dictated by aesthetic and pragmatic factors, like the availability of the appropriate workshop. So, the newly discovered frescoes do not fundamentally alter the earlier conclusions that we are dealing with the work of a Greek workshop, perhaps primarily operating in Pera, which had to adapt to the requirements of Latin clients. It only seems that they should be dated a little later than previously assumed (around the mid-14th century). Keywords: Pera; Constantinople; Genoese colonies; Dominicans; Byzantine painting; Trecento painting 1. Basic Information on the Dominican Church and Monastery in Pera The church of St. Paul (or St. Dominic) in Pera (Figure1), belonging to the Dominican Order, is one of the most intriguing monuments created in the eastern Genoese colonies, certainly the largest preserved sacred building from their territories (Figure2). It is true that the dating of the construction of this church is not unequivocally accepted by all researchers, but most probably place it in the first quarter of the 14th century, specifically between 1299 and 1323.1 The first of these dates means the foundation of a Dominican convent in Pera by brother Guillaume Bernard de Gaillac (Loenertz 1935, p. 336; Delacroix-Besnier 1997, pp. 10, 435; Violante 1999, p. 150),2 while the second is recorded on the oldest dated tombstone from this church. At the same time, it is probable that the decision to embark on or accelerate, its construction lay in the expulsion of the Dominicans from Constantinople itself and the suppression of the monastic house there in 1307. It is also unclear whether and to what extent 1 For the survey of different dating proposals (Quirini-Popławski 2017, p. 107). 2 For general history of the Dominican outpost in Pera, see especially (Loenertz 1932, pp. 6–15; 1935, pp. 336–9; 1937, pp. 38–47; Violante 1999, pp. 150–62). Arts 2019, 8, 131; doi:10.3390/arts8040131 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 26 Artsis recorded2019, 8, 131 on the oldest dated tombstone from this church. At the same time, it is probable that2of the 26 decision to embark on or accelerate, its construction lay in the expulsion of the Dominicans from Constantinople itself and the suppression of the monastic house there in 1307. It is also unclear thewhether church and (probably to what under extent construction the church then)(probabl suffyered under during construction the catastrophic then) suffered fire of the during colony the in 1315catastrophic (Belgrano fire 1877–1884 of the colony, p. 322 in [tombstone 1315 (Belgr ofano Odone 1877–1884, Salvago p. from 322 1323]; [tombstone Müller-Wiener of Odone 1977 Salvago, p. 79; Düllfrom 19831323];, p. Müller-Wiener 234; Cramer and 1977, Düll p. 198579; Düll, pp. 19 313–19).83, p. 234; Cramer and Düll 1985, pp. 313–19). Figure 1. Pera seen from the opposite side of the Golden Horne, fot.fot. R. Quirini-Pop Quirini-Popławski.ławski. It seems,seems, however,however, that that this this building building was was the the result result of aof single a single act act of construction,of construction, using using brick brick and stone.and stone. Despite Despite the controversy the controversy on this on subject, this subject, I believe I believe that it was that probably it was probably a single-aisle a single-aisle structure consistingstructure consisting originally originally of a cross-ribbed of a cross-ribbed vaulted eastern vaulted part, eastern including part, theincluding choir with the achoir pair with of flanking a pair chapelsof flanking (all threechapels parts (all on three almost parts square on almost plans) square and a non-vaultedplans) and a single non-vaulted nave (Figure single3). nave Two (Figure entrances 3). ledTwo to entrances it: a western led oneto it: and a western huge portal one and located huge in portal the middle located of thein the southern middle wall. of the Along southern the eastern wall. wallAlong of the churcheastern runswall a of vaulted the church corridor, runs with a vaulted its own corridor, ogival portal with from its own the south, ogival leading portal originallyfrom the tosouth, the monasteryleading originally located northto the ofmonastery the church. locate Aboved north the southernof the church. end of Above this corridor the southern rises a squareend of 3 bellthis tower,corridor the rises upper a floorssquare of bell which tower, have the been upper built floors entirely ofof which brick (haveQuirini-Popławski been built entirely 2017, p.of 108).brick (Quirini-PopDespiteł theawski emptying 2017, p. of108). the3 archives and the most valuable interior furnishings in 1453, the Dominican monastery functioned for more than 20 years, and the church was converted into a mosque named Arap Camii between 1479 and 1481. Already fulfilling this function, the building was rebuilt twice—partially at the times of Sultan Mehmed III (1595–1603), and more fundamentally—from the Sultana Saliha’s foundation in 1734–1735. The mosque was later renovated after 1807, in 1868, and especially in 1913–1919, as a result of a fire (by the architect Kemaleddin), when, among other changes, it was widened towards the north. The plasters originally covering the exterior walls were removed only recently, between 1982–1984 (Quirini-Popławski 2017, p. 109; Sa˘glam 2018, pp. 117–18). 3 Superficial or random research of this church architecture see: (Gurlitt 1912, pp. 41–42; Müller-Wiener 1977, pp. 79–80; Cramer and Düll 1985, pp. 296–98, 311–19; Quirini-Popławski 2007, p. 209; Westphalen 2007, pp. 51–52, 58; 2008, pp. 277–79, 285; Curˇci´c´ 2010, p. 543; Akyürek 2011, p. 330; Melvani 2017, pp. 38–39; Sa˘glam 2018, p. 114). 3 Superficial or random research of this church architecture see: (Gurlitt 1912, pp. 41–42; Müller-Wiener 1977, pp. 79–80; Cramer and Düll 1985, pp. 296–98, 311–19; Quirini-Popławski 2007, p. 209; Westphalen 2007, pp. 51–52, 58; 2008, pp. 277–79, 285; Ćurčić 2010, p. 543; Akyürek 2011, p. 330; Melvani 2017, pp. 38–39; Sağlam 2018, p. 114). Arts 2019, 8, 131 3 of 26 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 26 Figure 2. Pera,Pera, the the church church of ofSt. St.Paul Paul (first (first quarter quarter of the of 14th the century), 14th century), interior interior towards towards east, fot. east, R. fot.Quirini-Pop R. Quirini-Popławskiławski (2019). (2019). ThisDespite church the isemptying distinguished of the by archives numerous and elements the mo ofst bas-reliefvaluable decorationinterior furnishings and over 120 in preserved1453, the tomb-slabs,Dominican which,monastery since functioned the restoration for carriedmore duringthan 20 World years, War and I, havethe beenchurch kept was at theconverted Archaeological into a Museummosque named in Istanbul. Arap4 TheyCamii confirm between the 1479 role ofand this 1481. church Already as one offulfilling the most this important function, burial the building places in Pera.was Interestingly,rebuilt twice—partially there were notat onlythe Latinstimes living of Sultan in Pera buriedMehmed in it,III but (1595–1603), also those living and in more other Levantinefundamentally—from centers, sometimes the Sultana very Saliha’s distant. foundation The place in of 1734–1735. eternal rest The was mosque also found was later there renovated by many membersafter 1807, of in the 1868, expedition and especially of Amadeus in 1913–1919, VI, Count as of a Savoy, result for of example—Philippea fire (by the architect de Lomb Kemaleddin),éry (died inwhen, 1366), among as well other as eminent changes, West it was European widened knights towards captured the north. by the The Turks plasters after originally the defeat covering at Nikopolis the inexterior 1396, whowalls died were in captivity,removed foronly example recently, “Lord between on Truxin” 1982–1984 (probably (Quirini-Pop Enguerrandławski VII of2017, Coucy, p. died109; inSağ Bursalam 2018, in 1397) pp. (117–18).Janin 1969 , pp. 591–92; De Clavijo 2004, pp. 106–7; Dalleggio d’Alessio 1936, p. 414). This church is distinguished by numerous elements of bas-relief decoration and over 120 2.preserved Discoveries tomb-slabs, of Paintings which, before since 2012the restoration and Previous carried Research during World War I, have been kept at the ArchaeologicalNevertheless, Museum the most in Istanbul.