"The Queen Root of This Clime": Ethnoecological Investigations of Blue Camas (Camassia leichtlinii (Baker) Wats., C. quamash (Pursh) Greene; Liliaceae) and its Landscapes on Southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia Brenda Raye Beckwith B.A., Sacramento State University, Sacramento, 1989 M.Sc., Sacramento State University, Sacramento, 1995 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Biology We accept this dissertation as conforming to the required standard O Brenda Raye Beckwith, 2004 University of Victoria All right reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopying or other means, without the permission of the author. Co-Supervisors: Drs. Nancy J. Turner and Patrick von Aderkas ABSTRACT Bulbs of camas (Camassia leichtlinii and C. quamash; Liliacaeae) were an important native root vegetable in the economies of Straits Salish peoples. Intensive management not only maintained the ecological productivity of &us valued resource but shaped the oak-camas parklands of southern Vancouver Island. Based on these concepts, I tested two hypotheses: Straits Salish management activities maintained sustainable yields of camas bulbs, and their interactions with this root resource created an extensive cultural landscape. I integrated contextual information on the social and environmental histories of the pre- and post-European contact landscape, qualitative records that reviewed Indigenous camas use and management, and quantitative data focused on applied ecological experiments. I described how the cultural landscape of southern Vancouver Island changed over time, especially since European colonization of southern Vancouver Island. Prior to European contact, extended families of local Straits Salish peoples had a complex system of root food production; inherited camas harvesting grounds were maintained within this region. Indigenous peoples adapted their economic decisions and traditional food needs to fit shifting social and environmental parameters. Through ecological experimentation I examined the growth and development of camas in nursery cold fiames and in simulated Indigenous management techtuques of naturally occurring camas populations. These two studies showed that camas demonstrated a variety of growth patterns and maintained a range of developmental phases, leading me to conclude that this genus is a good candidate for regular management. The field study also confirmed a high degree of habitat heterogeneity characteristic of this region. I developed a multiscalar model of integrated Indigenous root management and reconstructed the ethnoecological dynamics of former camas landscapes. From this I derived management recommendations for future camas landscapes. I elucidated how camas harvest grounds were essentially agroecosystems, maintained by a range of anthropogenic disturbance patterns. The evolution of camas cultivation was a continuum of intensifjring intervention between humans and a native root crop, a relationship of human-environment interaction that quickly ended, for the most part, soon after European contact. Successful restoration of today's degraded camas populations, and of the nationally endangered Garry oak ecosystems, in which Camassia is a major herbaceous component, is dependent on ethnoecologically integrated restoration initiatives based on multidisciplinary landscape reconstruction studies. Examiners: iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page .i. Abstract 11 Table of Contents iv... List of Tables Vlll List of Figures ix Acknowledgments xii Dedication xvi 1.0 CULTURAL LANDSCAPES OF SOUTHERN VANCOUVER ISLAND: INTRODUCTION AND FOUNDATION 1 1.1 Development of an Ethnoecological Research Project 7 1.1.1 Conceptual Beginnings 7 1.1.1.1 What is a Cultural Landscape? 8 1.1.1.2 Economic Systems of Indigenous Peoples 10 1.1.1.3 Root Foods in the Indigenous Diet 14 1.1.2 Interdisciplinary Research Approach 16 1.1.3 Research Focus and Structure 19 1.2 Environmental and Cultural Setting 22 1.2.1 Pre-European Contact Environmental History 23 1.2.1.1 Palaeoecology 23 1.2.1.2 Environment and Biota 24 1.2.1.3 Soils 25 1.2.2 Pre-European Contact Cultural History 28 1.2.2.1 Archaeology 2 8 1.2.2.2 Indigenous Residence Patterns and Economic Infrastructure 30 1.2.3 European Contact and Colonization (1790- 19 11) 33 1.2.3.1 Pre-Colonization Period: Eighteenth Century 33 1.2.3.2 Post-Colonization Period: Nineteenth Century 36 1.3 Chapter Conclusions 42 2.0 SUMMARY AND INTERPRETATION OF CAMASSU USE AND MANAGEMENT: QUALITATIVE EVIDENCE 44 2.1 Introduction 44 2.2 Development and Resources 47 2.3 Qualitative Evidence 49 2.3.1 Ethnohistory 49 2.3.1.1 Indigenous Camas Use and Management on Southern Vancouver Island and Adjacent Areas 49 2.3.1.2 Indigenous Camas Use and Management in Other Regions 56 2.3.1.3 Landscape Descriptions as Evidence of Camas Use and Management 57 2.3.1.4 End of the Ethnohistoric Camas Records 59 2.3.2 Ethnography and Ethnobotany 62 2.3.2.1 Cultural Significance of Camas 62 2.3.2.2 Camas Harvesting Grounds 64 2.3.2.3 Camas Bulb Procurement: Harvesting and Resource Management 69 2.3.2.4 Camas Bulb Production: Makmg and Sharing of Camas Products 77 2.3.2.5 Summary of Ethnographic and Ethnobotanical Evidence 83 2.4 Synthesis of Qualitative Resources 85 2.4.1 Evaluation of the Use of Qualitative References 86 2.4.2 Corroborative Clues regarding Changes in Indigenous Camas Use 88 2.5 Chapter Conclusions 90 3.0 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF CAMASSL1. ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 92 3.1 Literature Review 92 3.1.1 Taxonomy and Nomenclatural Review 96 3.1.2 Camassia Characteristics from British Columbia 100 3.1.3 Ecology of Camassia 104 3.1.3.1 Camas Growth and Development in Controlled Settings 104 3.1.3.2 Camas Growth and Development in Natural Settings 107 3.1.3.3 Ecological Research on Camas 109 3.2 Nursery Study: Demographic Investigations of Camassia leichtlinii 112 3.2.1 Methodology used in Nursery Study 112 3.2.1.1 Experimental Design 112 3.2.1.2 Monitoring Methods 114 3.2.1.3 Analytical Methods 115 3.2.2 Results and Discussion of Nursery Study 116 3.2.2.1 General Demographic Trends 116 3.2.2.2 Relationships between Plant Attributes 124 3.2.3 Conclusions from Nursery Study 127 3.3 Field Study: Ethnoecological Investigations of Camassia leichtlinii and C. quamash 128 3.3.1 Field Study Methodology 128 3.3.1.1 General Setting and Site Descriptions 3.3.1.1.1 Mill Hill Regional Park 3.3.1.1.2 Witty's Lagoon and Tower Point (Witty's Lagoon Regional Park) 3.3.1.1.3 Devonian Regional Park 3.3.1.2 Experimental Design 3.3.1.3 Sampling Methods 3.3.1.4 Analytical Methods 3.3.2 Observations Resulting from Harvest and Burn Treatments 3.3.3 Field Experimental Results 3.3.3.1 Site Descriptions 3.3.3.2 Environmental Variation 3.3.3.3 Camas Analyses: Site Effects 3.3.3.4 Camas Analyses: Treatment Effects 3.3.4 Discussion of Field Study 3.4 Chapter Discussion and Conclusions 3.4.1 Camassia Research: Major Findings 3.4.2 Camassia Research: Reflections and Directions 4.0 CAMAS CULTURE: ETHNOECOLOGY OF A STRAITS SALISH ROOT FOOD 165 4.1 Overview of Root Food Management 166 4.1.1 Levels of Root Food Management 167 4.1.1.1 Management at the Population Level 168 4.1.1.2 Management at the Community Level 172 4.1.1.3 Management at the Landscape Level 174 4.1.2 Ecological Effects of Root Food Management 178 4.1.2.1 Effects from Population Management 178 4.1.2.2 Effects from Community Management 180 4.1.2.3 Effects from Landscape Management 181 4.2 Ethnoecology of Straits Salish Camas Management 182 4.2.1 Ethnoecological Scales of Camas Management 183 4.2.1.1 A Harvest of Two Camas Species: Population Level 185 4.2.1.2 FireandWater:CommunityLevel 188 4.2.1.3 Fallow Camas Grounds: Landscape Level 190 4.2.2 Reconstruction of Camas Cultivation 193 4.2.2.1 Ethnoecological Dynamics of Camas Grounds 193 4.2.2.2 Cultural Demands on Camas Populations 197 4.3 The Camas Landscape of Southern Vancouver Island 204 4.3.1 Emergence of Camas Management Practices (pre-3500 BP) 205 4.3.2 Development of Camas Culture (3500 BP - 200 BP) 208 vii 4.3.3 Breakdown of Carnas Culture: Potato Cultivation Introduced (post- 200 BP) 210 4.4 Chapter Conclusions 213 5.0 ETHNOECOLOGICAL RESTORATION OF CAMASSU LANDSCAPES 2 15 5.1 Ethnoecological Restoration: Background 216 5.2 Management Recommendations for Carnas Landscapes 2 18 5.2.1 Introduction: Rediscovering Our Roots 219 5.2.2 Population and Community Management: Getting Down to Business 222 5.2.3 Landscape Management: From Cultural to Community 223 5.3 The Future for Camas as a Root Food Literature Cited Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Vlll LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Local soil types of southern Vancouver Island. 26 Table 1.2 Straits Salish peoples of southern Vancouver Island. 3 1 Table 2.1 Coast Salish terms for Camassia plants, bulbs, or harvesting sites on southern Vancouver Island and in adjacent areas. 63 Table 3.1 Characteristics of Camassia species in the general Victoria region. 103 Table 3.2 Summary resighting table tracking growth patterns for Camassia leichtlinii over time and the number of plants exhibiting each growth pattern. 117 Table 3.3 Changes in development status of Camassia leichtlinii for each year of nursery study, including rates of mortality, dormancy, and reproduction (flowering and offsetting). 121 Table 3.4 Trends in Camassia leichtlinii leaf number (n = 19 1). 121 Table 3.5 Trends in Camassia leichtlinii flower number (n = 55).