Segmental and Non-Segmental Phonology of ūáá̄ Anteneh Getachew Damtew A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Linguistics and Philology Presented in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Documentary Linguistics and Culture Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa, Ethiopia June 2018 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES This is to certify that the dissertation prepared by Anteneh Getachew Damtew, entitled: Segmental and Non-Segmental Phonology of ūáá ̄ and submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (in Documentary Linguistics and Culture) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the Examining Committeeː Examinerː____________________Signature____________Date_________ (External) Examinerː____________________Signature____________Date_________ (Internal) Advisor:_____________________Signature____________Date_________ Chair of Department or Graduate Program Coordinator ABSTRACT This dissertation presents the descriptions of the segmental and non-segmental phonology of Kunama, a Nilo-Saharan dialect cluster spoken in Western Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. It also provides an annotated multimedia corpus of the names and description of the Kunama cultural artifacts. The study uses primary data recorded from speakers of the Kunama Shukre dialect, spoken by an isolated minority group living in Tahtay Addi Yabo Woreda of Northwestern Zone of the Tigray Regional State, Ethiopia. The data was collected in three-round fieldworks in a period of two years (2014-15). The study has applied both impressionistic and instrumental analyses methods. The segmental phonology part covers the description of consonant and vowel sounds, phonotactics and syllable structure, phonological and morphophonological process and phonological adaptation of loanwords. Kunama (Shukre) has 18 consonant phonemes, whereas, the glottal fricative /h/ consonant, which has previously been proposed as the 19th consonant phoneme of Kunama, is found to be marginal. Two labialized velar consonants are attested to be the allophonic variants of the basic velar phonemes. The language has five phonemic vowels with an equal number of longer counterparts. The schwa and the central high-close vowel have a phonetic status despite that they are frequent. The analysis of phonotactics and syllable structure shows that the language has a richer and moderately complex inventory of syllable shapes. The productive and the most frequent consonant clusters (CC) follow sonorant-obstruent pattern, in which the prenasalized sequences (Nasal-Obstruent) are the commonest of all. Clusters and geminates occur only word-medially, so more than one consonant is severely marked, word-initially while three consonant sequences (CCC) are disallowed. Typologically, Kunama syllables are specified as light-open, heavy-open, light-closed and heavy-closed structures. Syllable weight specification is based on the mora count in the rhyme constituents of a syllable. Kunama light syllables are mono-moraic, i.e. having either a short vowel or a short vowel with a non-sonorant coda; whereas, the heavy syllables are bi-moraic having a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel with a sonorant coda. A (C) V (C) template that makes an obligatory nucleus and optional margins, therefore, i represents the Kunama basic syllable structures. While CV syllable is the unmarked structure, closed syllables (VC and CVC) are constrained word-finally. The morphophonemic processes comprise of terminal vowel deletion, vowel and glide epenthesis, glide formation, vowel rounding assimilation, gemination and degemination. Post-lexical alterations may cause constraint violations and necessitate resyllabification as such some constraints that operate on non-derived lexical items may not diametrically encode onto derivations. The analysis of phonological adaptation of loanwords explores the adjustment of word shapes and the mapping of sound segments of borrowed terms. Accordingly, consonant final loanwords are adapted with epenthesis of the nominal vowel suffix [a], and sound segments are adapted via substitution, deletion and retention strategies. The vowel adaptation is asymmetrical as both phonetically and phonologically grounded changes have been observed; nonetheless, the consonant adaptation is phonologically grounded. The non-segmental phonology part covers the analyses of gemination, vowel length and tone, in the lexicon and in the grammar. Kunama is a tone language with quantity contrast of vowel and consonant length. It has three phonemic tone levels (High, Mid and Low) that combine in nine ways on the surface of bi-moraic syllables and on sequences of two light syllables. These level combinations are claimed to be the basic melodies of the language. Complex (polysyllabic) contour melodies that combine simple rises and falls are attested on polysyllabic words. The study attempts to show the importance of pitch scaling in Kunama tone production as such it proposes a four-point pitch height scale in the tonal space of three distinctive level heights. The F0 scaling splits the high tone into extra-high and high pitches though no evidence shows the prominence of the former in underlying contrast. Tone plays a grammatical role as well, and it marks number of the possessor, in a range of possessive constructions, and number of person object in verbs. It also identifies inclusive vs. exclusive possessor, copula vs. genitive, and used as an intensifier morpheme on adjectives in attributive function. The salient tonal processes in Kunama are triggered by morpheme boundary phenomena. These include spreading and floating of tones, re-linking of floating tones, high tone shifting and docking, contour formation, tone assimilation and a low tone terrace. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writing of this dissertation has made use of every form of support from different individuals and institutions that I am enormously indebted to all of them. For reason of space, I could not mention every one by name, but worth mentioning are due to the following: First, I owe much debt to Dr. Moges Yigezu, my research advisor. I was fortunate working on phonology with him, and it is hard to imagine what this study would have looked like without his inputs. His inspiring words and comments on every step of the research endeavor have injected me the stamina to work on Kunama tone, which otherwise was beyond my initial plan. I would like to thank Addis Ababa University and Mek'ele University for funding my study. I am very much grateful to the people of Kunama who collaborated with me during and after the fieldwork although I was first able to penetrate into the community due to Ato Merzu Nigusie and Ato Alemayehu Moges. Merzu is a militiaman from Shiraro town and is popular among the Kunama Shukre community, for which he was serving me as a facilitator while staying and visiting remote areas of the Kunama Shukre. Of all consultants, I am extremely indebted to Ato Berhane Kegnu, Ato Bahre Jaffer, Abboy Fantay G/egziabher, Ato Tuŋɡʷa Areru, Ato G/meskel Andom, Ato Banba K/mariam, Ato Haile Wolela, W/ro Leteberhan K/mariam, Ato Gidey Turkʷa, Abboy Desta Fukkʷa, Ato Dagnew Ketemu, Ato Ashebir Jambo and Ato Abedom G/yohannis. In their language, I would like to say āèō, to all of them. I am thankful to Dr. Anne-christie Hellental, who first sparked light to me on the notion of tone via whistling. Her dedication in training us with the language documentation tools has ultimately made great returns. Similarly, I am grateful to Dr. Girma Mengistu, from the department of Linguistics, at AAU, for giving me some of the seminal works on tone. My heartfelt thanks also go to Dr. Bert Remijsen from the University of Edinburgh, UK. He is a welcoming person who I met during the 13th Nilo-Saharan Languages Colloquium iii held in Addis Ababa. Bert has explained me his interest in my work and commented the section on the pitch scaling of Kunama tone that was presented in the seminar. He had also sent me some of the relevant studies to my study including his own publications. Due credit has to be given to all of my friends and colleagues from Mek'ele and Addis Ababa for any form support I benefited from. Especially, I should express my gratitude to Ing.Yigzaw Hagos (Woddi Hagos), for his unconditional support during my study period. Woddi, I will never forget you for everything you did for me, and particularly the powerful words you have uttered when I was about to terminate the study due to the problems you know. The rest of my friends whom I remain thankful are Yibeltal Nigusie, Keneni Alemu, Yonas Getaneh, Yemane Tesfay, Zufan Asmare, Mesfin Demissie, Mekwanint Tilahun, Solomon Abraha, Sintayehu Semmu, Kebede T/mikael, Abraha Tegegn, Amanuel Kebede, Eyuel Behailu, Aklilu Getachew, Desalegn Ayehu, Endashaw Letera, Dr. Abinet Sime, Dr. Esayas Tajjebe, Goitom Tikku, Sewagegn Asfaw and Andargachew Get'u. My enormous thanks also go to my father, Ato Getachew Damtew, my brothers, Selamneh Getachew, Abraham Mohammed and Nigat Gessese, and my sisters, Tinebeb Getachew, Mahlet Getachew, Emebet Kemal and Martha Nigusie. Lastly, these three people have been my ultimate reasons for stepping down the desperate moments that happend during the last six years. These, who I should owe a special place in my heart, are my better half, Sr. Melkamzer Gessese, and our lovely children, Dagmawi Anteneh and Bitaniya Anteneh. They sacrificed