This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. The Social Life of Paper in Edinburgh c.1770 – c.1820 Claire L. Friend Ph.D. The University of Edinburgh 2016 Declaration I confirm that the following thesis has been composed by me, and is completely my own work. This thesis grew out of an essay I submitted towards the degree of MSc at the University of Edinburgh in the 2008-9 academic year titled ‗The Social Life of Paper‘. Claire L. Friend 31st March 2016 ~ 2 ~ Abstract Previous research on paper history has tended to be conducted from an economic perspective and/or as part of the field of book history within a broadly literary framework. This has resulted in understandings of paper history being book-centric and focused on production. We now have a great deal of knowledge about the physical process of hand paper-making, a good knowledge of the actors involved and where in the country paper was manufactured, but there is still very little scholarly discussion of the people, processes and practices associated with paper outside of the mill. Taking inspiration from eighteenth-century ‗it-narratives‘, this thesis takes a holistic approach to the paper trade – loosely based around the framework of social life theory as expounded by Arjun Appadurai and Igor Kopytoff. It encompasses a case study of the rag- collection and paper-wholesale operations of a single Edinburgh firm, a wider examination of paper-retailing in Edinburgh, a look at the ownership of desks in Edinburgh alongside a consideration of advice and instruction relating to desk-use, and closes with an examination of the papers owned by a notable Edinburgh family. The first three chapters consider the scope of the Edinburgh paper trade. Moving through distinct stages in the life of paper, these chapters begin with an account of the Edinburgh rag-trade. Business records relating to the Balerno Company‘s rag-buying operations reveal an active and organised network with connections to a variety of trades. Continuing the focus on the Balerno Company, the second chapter considers the company as paper-wholesalers. It demonstrates that the driving force behind their operations was not the supply of paper for the booktrade but rather the provision of wrapping papers for the purposes of commerce. Using advertisements in local newspapers the third chapter looks at the reach of paper-selling beyond the booktrades. The final two chapters move gradually from the commercial to the personal. Chapter four considers the presentation of desk-use in penmanship manuals and the evidence of desk- ownership in confirmation inventories. Both of which are suggestive of a growing mercantile interest in desk furniture. Finally, this thesis closes by looking at the paper archives of the Innes family of Stow in order to examine the extent to which the findings of previous chapters is reflected in the collection, retention and use of papers across two generations of this family. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the value of adopting an inclusive approach to the study of paper history, as doing so opens up a multifaceted world of paper. Paper history has tended to be understood as the history of writing and printing paper sold by booksellers and stationers. The social life approach allows connections to be made between materials, artefacts and trades; to gain a fuller understanding of the role paper played in people‘s lives. ~ 3 ~ Lay Summary Prior to the mid-nineteenth-century paper was mainly made by hand from reconstituted linen rags. Previous research on paper history has been conducted within a broadly literary framework. This has resulted in understandings of paper history being book-centric and focused on production. There is a great deal of knowledge about the physical process of hand paper-making, a good knowledge of the people involved and where in Britain paper was manufactured, but there is still very little scholarly discussion of the people, processes and practices associated with paper outside of the mill. Taking inspiration from eighteenth-century fictions which personified paper, this thesis takes a holistic approach to the paper trade – loosely based around the notion that objects have ―social lives‖. The concept of object lives stems from an anthropological approach, which examined things in a similar way to examining people, by looking at how their lives began, how they progressed and what made them important. Using business records this thesis begins by considering paper‘s origins as rags through the lens of one of Edinburgh‘s preeminent papermaking companies. The same company is the focus of the second chapter on paper wholesale. The third chapter considers paper retail, and the adverts placed by sellers of paper in Edinburgh newspapers. The fourth chapter examines the way people were instructed in writing by contemporary manuals and the desks people in Edinburgh sat at to do such writing. The last chapter is based on the archive of an Edinburgh family and the many ways in which they used paper. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the value of adopting an inclusive approach to the study of paper history, as doing so opens up a multifaceted world of paper. Paper history has tended to be understood as the history of writing and printing paper sold by booksellers and stationers. The social life approach allows connections to be made between materials, artefacts and trades; to gain a fuller understanding of the role paper played in people‘s lives. Note on Spelling and Grammar Original spelling and grammar has been retained in quotes. Unless otherwise stated all emphasis is original. ~ 4 ~ Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 3 Lay Summary ............................................................................................................................ 4 Note on Spelling and Grammar ............................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 7 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... 8 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 10 List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................ 10 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 11 Twentieth-Century Paper Histories – Studies in Papermaking ....................................... 13 Social Life Studies ................................................................................................................ 18 The Social Life of Paper in Eighteenth-Century Literature............................................... 20 Twenty-First Century Paper Studies – Bookish Histories ................................................ 27 Thesis Outline ...................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 1 Collecting Rags: The Balerno Company ................................................................................ 43 The Rag Warehouse ............................................................................................................. 47 Buying Rags ......................................................................................................................... 53 Selling Rags .......................................................................................................................... 62 Who Sold Rags? ................................................................................................................... 67 Rags and China .................................................................................................................... 70 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 75 Chapter 2 Wholesale Paper: The Balerno Company and their Customers ............................................79 Wholesaling Paper ............................................................................................................... 79 The Paper Warehouse ......................................................................................................... 88 Customers and their Purchases .........................................................................................