POVERTY AND REEFS VOLUME 1 A GLOBAL OVERVIEW IMM Ltd Emma Whittingham, Jock Campbell and Philip Townsley IMM Ltd Innovation Centre Rennes Drive Exeter University Campus Exeter EX4 4RN IMM Ltd United Kingdom http://www.ex.ac.uk/imm DFID Department for International Development 1 Palace Street London SW1E 5HE United Kingdom http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ IOC/UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO 1 Rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15 France http://www.ioc.unesco.org POVERTY AND REEFS VOLUME 1: A GLOBAL OVERVIEW Emma Whittingham Jock Campbell Philip Townsley i © 2003 IMM Ltd, Exeter, UK Typeset by Exe Valley Dataset Ltd, Exeter, UK Project Management by Swales & Willis, Exeter, UK Printed in France. Reference number: IOC/UNESCO/INF-1188, Poverty and Reefs, Volume 1: Global Overview, Volume 2: Case Studies. 260pp. Citation: “Whittingham, E., Campbell, J. and Townsley, P. (2003). Poverty and Reefs, DFID–IMM–IOC/UNESCO, 260pp.” Printed and distributed free by: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO 1, Rue Miollis, 75015 Paris, France. Tel: +33 1 45 68 10 10, Fax: +33 1 45 68 58 12 Website: http://ioc.unesco.org, Email: [email protected] DISCLAIMER The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariats of UNESCO and IOC concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or its authorities, or concerning the elimination of the frontiers of any country or territory. This document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID. COPYRIGHT All rights reserved. This information may be freely used and copied for educational and other non-commercial purposes, provided that any reproduction of data be accompanied by an acknowledgement of IMM as the source (© IMM). This does not apply to the pages and images with explicitly reserved reproduction right: © followed by the source and the year of first circulation. Reproduction of the latter requires prior authorization from the author. ii CONTENTS FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES . v PREFACE . vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . ix NOMENCLATURE . xi BACKGROUND . xiii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . xv 1 GLOBAL OVERVIEW: POVERTY AND CORAL REEFS . 1 1.1 Introduction . 1 1.2 The global extent of coral reefs . 1 1.3 Coral reef stakeholders . 3 1.4 Numbers of people dependent on reefs . 4 1.5 Characteristics of reef-dependent poverty . 4 1.6 Regional distribution of coral reefs and poverty . 5 1.7 Summary . 11 2 AN OVERVIEW OF REEF-RELATED BENEFIT FLOWS TO THE POOR . 12 2.1 Introduction . 12 2.2 Contribution of coral reefs to the resources of the poor . 12 2.3 Enhancing interactions with direct influencing factors . 26 2.4 The ability to cope with indirect influencing factors . 33 2.5 Summary . 36 3 CHANGING BENEFIT FLOWS AND INCREASING VULNERABILITY . 38 3.1 Introduction . 38 3.2 Causes of change . 38 3.3 Impacts of change . 41 3.4 Changing livelihood strategies . 45 3.5 Vulnerability to future change . 45 3.6 Summary . 46 4 INTERVENTIONS . 48 4.1 Introduction . 48 4.2 Responding to changing livelihoods . 48 4.3 Preventing reef decline . 48 4.4 Diversifying and enhancing livelihood opportunities . 57 4.5 Strengthening livelihood support systems . 58 4.6 Summary . 58 5 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS . 59 5.1 Overview of the current situation . 59 5.2 Principles for addressing poverty-related reef issues . 61 5.3 Policy considerations . 62 5.4 Summary . 62 ANNEX 1 COUNTRY OUTLINES OF POVERTY AND REEFS . 63 NOTES . 68 REFERENCES . 69 iii Cover photo credits Volume 1 AC BCCEE DDDE E DDDF G GG A – Live fish cages, Indonesia, James Oliver, ReefBase B – Basket of parrot fish, Maldives, Tomas LeBerre, SEAMARC C – Outrigger canoe, Vanuatu, Philip Townsley, IMM Ltd D – Women cleaning nets, Gulf of Mannar, India, Emma Whittingham, IMM Ltd E – Woman reef gleaning, Fiji, James Oliver, ReefBase F – Fishing boat, Mozambique, Jock Campbell, IMM Ltd G – Outrigger canoes and fisher, Mozambique, James Wilson, Kusi Lda iv FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES FIGURES Figure 1 Global distribution of coral reefs 2 Figure 2 Proportion of population living on the coast 2 Figure 3 Number of people living within 100 km of the coast 3 Figure 4 Key categories of reef users 3 Figure 5 Coral reef stakeholders 4 Figure 6 1990 global distribution of people living on less than 1US$ a day 5 Figure 7 Reef-dependent livelihoods 13 Figure 8 Pole and line tuna fishing in Lakshadweep, India 14 Figure 9 Coral rubble and gastropod shells used in house construction in Northern Mozambique 17 Figure 10 Coral harvest, Philippines 17 Figure 11 Fish trap secured with coral pieces, Philippines 17 Figure 12 Small-scale fishing craft, Mozambique 18 Figure 13 Local boat construction, Indonesia 19 Figure 14 Dried sea cucumber, Indonesia 20 Figure 15 Fish for sale at a local market, Indonesia 20 Figure 16 Women sorting trash fish, Indonesia 22 Figure 17 Women using a net in a shallow lagoon, Indonesia 23 Figure 18 Cast netting in a shallow lagoon, Gulf of Mannar, India 24 Figure 19 A widow and trader sorting the crab.